Introduction to Applied Psychology - General Psychology II | PSYC 1101, Study notes of Psychology

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General Psychology IIGeneral Psychology II

Introduction to Applied Introduction to Applied

Psychology Psychology

Applied PsychologyApplied Psychology

An An Applied ScienceApplied Science differs from adiffers from a Pure SciencePure Science in its focus onin its focus on

using obtained information to help resolve problems. using obtained information to help resolve problems.

A A Pure SciencePure Science is only interested in finding the truthis only interested in finding the truth

An An Applied ScienceApplied Science is only interested in those truths that areis only interested in those truths that are

useful in practical situations. useful in practical situations.

Scientific method in Psychology identifies Scientific method in Psychology identifies (^) factorsfactors (^) ( structures or( structures or properties of the properties of the internal and externalinternal and external environment ) that haveenvironment ) that have potentialpotential for influencing how people behave in those environments. for influencing how people behave in those environments. It can also It can also estimate the strength of these factorsestimate the strength of these factors ( i.e. How( i.e. How likelylikely eacheach factor is to influence or change the way that people behave.) factor is to influence or change the way that people behave.)

But there are a number of difficulties that must be overcome But there are a number of difficulties that must be overcome

Issues in Applied Psychological ResearchIssues in Applied Psychological Research

The Effect of Context or Background The Effect of Context or Background

Interactions between influence Interactions between influence

factors and background factors factors and background factors

When we draw conclusions about When we draw conclusions about ‘the effect’ ‘the effect’ that one person has onthat one person has on another another we should consider the possible we should consider the possible interaction effect of changing interaction effect of changing background factors. background factors. Conclusions drawn about the Conclusions drawn about the (^) ‘effect‘effect of A on B’ of A on B’ in the presence of somein the presence of some background factor C background factor C may not applymay not apply if the if the (^) background factor changes tobackground factor changes to D D Experiments must systematically Experiments must systematically compare and evaluate such compare and evaluate such factors factors Single factor influence Example: What is the effect of Cartman on Kyle? (e.g. Cartman may dominate Kyle, etc.) Factor Interaction In the presence of some other changeable factor (e.g. presence of different adults) the effect that Cartman has on Kyle may change. When Mr. Garrison is present Cartman has a dominating effect on Kyle But when Chef is present Kyle may dominate Cartman

The Problem of EquifinalityThe Problem of Equifinality

For any observed ‘final’ result there may be many different factors which are all For any observed ‘final’ result there may be many different factors which are all ‘equally likely’ to have caused it. ‘equally likely’ to have caused it.

For example if a student gets a final course grade of For example if a student gets a final course grade of CC

This could be the result of any of the following test outcomes: This could be the result of any of the following test outcomes: Test 1 Test 1 (^) Test 2Test 2 Test 3Test 3 Test 4Test 4 Final Course GradeFinal Course Grade

1. 1. AA FF (^) AA FF CC
2. 2. CC CC CC CC CC
3. 3. BB BB DD DD CC
4. 4. FF (^) DD BB AA (^) CC Should we assume that each of these ‘C’ grades is caused by the same type of Should we assume that each of these ‘C’ grades is caused by the same type of student or studying behavior? student or studying behavior? Experiments must determine the ‘relative influence strength’ of multiple factors Experiments must determine the ‘relative influence strength’ of multiple factors

Issues in Applied Psychological Research Issues in Applied Psychological Research

Same Outcome Many Causes Same Outcome Many Causes

Issues in Applied Psychological ResearchIssues in Applied Psychological Research

Seeing what we “need” to see Seeing what we “need” to see

The problem of observer bias The problem of observer bias

Sometimes our needs or Sometimes our needs or

expectations may cause us to expectations may cause us to

see what we need or expect to see what we need or expect to

see instead of what might see instead of what might

actually be there actually be there

This leads to what is called This leads to what is called

hypothesis confirmation bias. hypothesis confirmation bias.

Since it can be threatening to be Since it can be threatening to be proven wrong we tend to avoid proven wrong we tend to avoid noticing anything that we don’t want noticing anything that we don’t want or expect to see and instead see or expect to see and instead see only things that prove that we were only things that prove that we were right all along. right all along. Experiments must be designed to Experiments must be designed to rule out this type of biased rule out this type of biased influence. influence.

Issues in Applied Psychological ResearchIssues in Applied Psychological Research

People knowing that they’re being watched People knowing that they’re being watched

The problem of self The problem of self

consciousness consciousness

Observing people who know that they are Observing people who know that they are being studied can yield misleading results. being studied can yield misleading results. People in these situationsPeople in these situations^ (like first dates(like first dates and job interviews) and job interviews) may becomemay become selfself conscious. conscious. When people are self conscious they When people are self conscious they do not act naturally do not act naturally First Dates Job Interviews Do I have bad breath? Experimental methods must Experimental methods must be designed to ‘balance out’ be designed to ‘balance out’ or remove this influence or remove this influence before drawing conclusions before drawing conclusions

Issues in Applied Psychological ResearchIssues in Applied Psychological Research

Situations not yet faced Situations not yet faced Dangerous situations. Dangerous situations.

We are usually unable to make ‘objective We are usually unable to make ‘objective

observations’ in situations involving: observations’ in situations involving:

• (^) Coping with extreme stressCoping with extreme stress
• (^) Control of intense emotionsControl of intense emotions (both(both positive and negative, e.g. rage, fear, lust, positive and negative, e.g. rage, fear, lust,

etc. etc.))

• Response to ‘mind altering’ drugsResponse to ‘mind altering’ drugs
• (^) Psychological control of seriousPsychological control of serious

disease disease

• (^) Responding to life threateningResponding to life threatening

situations situations

With few if any opportunities to observe With few if any opportunities to observe

these situations we aren’t sure if we these situations we aren’t sure if we

know how to deal with them know how to deal with them

Issues in Applied Psychological ResearchIssues in Applied Psychological Research

Private behavior may differ from Public behavior Private behavior may differ from Public behavior

Considerations of Privacy Considerations of Privacy

These limit the amount and type of These limit the amount and type of observations researchers can make. observations researchers can make. Some individuals voluntarily waive Some individuals voluntarily waive their right to privacy for research their right to privacy for research purposes purposes [e.g. institutionalized populations in [e.g. institutionalized populations in hospitals, prisons, etc. hospitals, prisons, etc. Or even for a chance to win money Or even for a chance to win money like participants in the “Big Brother like participants in the “Big Brother House” t.v. series House” t.v. series

These situations may not be typical of how people These situations may not be typical of how people

usually live. usually live. (and they don’t qualify as experiments)(and they don’t qualify as experiments)

• (^) Improve knowledge around theImprove knowledge around the causes of Personality Disorder (PD). causes of Personality Disorder (PD).
• (^) Explore the relationship between PDExplore the relationship between PD and serious offending behavior. and serious offending behavior.
• (^) Evaluate specific assessment andEvaluate specific assessment and treatment programs. treatment programs. Prison research issue examples Prison research issue examples

Issues in Applied Psychological ResearchIssues in Applied Psychological Research

Unconscious Influences Unconscious Influences Factors that may influence Factors that may influence ‘rational decision making’‘rational decision making’ are more easily observed than those which may work at are more easily observed than those which may work at an an ‘unconscious’‘unconscious’ level.level. Since both conscious and unconscious influences may Since both conscious and unconscious influences may be involved it is hard to determine which may have been be involved it is hard to determine which may have been the deciding factor in a given situation. the deciding factor in a given situation.

Modern research on unconscious processes goes beyond Modern research on unconscious processes goes beyond

‘Freudian assumptions’ to explore a variety of ‘automatic’ ‘Freudian assumptions’ to explore a variety of ‘automatic’

reactions in the brain and nervous system. reactions in the brain and nervous system.

Psychology as an Applied sciencePsychology as an Applied science must deal with the problem ofmust deal with the problem of

identifying factors that influence the outcome of private, identifying factors that influence the outcome of private,

dangerous, or potential situations that are not accessible to dangerous, or potential situations that are not accessible to

laboratory researchers. laboratory researchers.

Examples: Examples:

• (^) Emotion control situationsEmotion control situations (anger, anxiety, or depression(anger, anxiety, or depression management) management)
• (^) Raising ChildrenRaising Children (motivating and developing their intellect and(motivating and developing their intellect and personality) personality)
• (^) Stress managementStress management (in jobs and personal relationships)(in jobs and personal relationships)
• (^) Finding factors that maintain problem behaviorsFinding factors that maintain problem behaviors
• (^) Finding Effective Treatments for Psychological disordersFinding Effective Treatments for Psychological disorders
• (^) Social influences on attitudes and their effects on behaviorSocial influences on attitudes and their effects on behavior

Applied Psychology Applied Psychology

These situations are studied by naturalistic observation and ‘analog’ These situations are studied by naturalistic observation and ‘analog’ laboratory experiments. laboratory experiments.

Applied PsychologyApplied Psychology

Theory : a guide for studying what is hard to Theory : a guide for studying what is hard to observe observe

Applied PsychologyApplied Psychology

The Role of Theory The Role of Theory Theories must be carefully tested if they are to Theories must be carefully tested if they are to contribute to scientific understanding contribute to scientific understanding

Reich’s Theory of ‘Orgone’ Radiation Reich’s Theory of ‘Orgone’ Radiation

Wilhelm Reich Wilhelm Reich

Applied PsychologyApplied Psychology

The Role of Theory The Role of Theory A Few Orgone Therapy Promises: Cuts,scrapes,wounds,infections heal rapidly Eliminates sinus infections quickly Quickly reduces pain Flu and colds gone in record time Improved mental clarity Improved sleep and better dreams Stops Ulcers Dead tapeworms in the toilet after a week or so Carpel tunnel syndrome gone in a day or so Eyes less bloodshot Skin tone immediately improved Helps remove heavy metals and organic toxins Establishes normal PH within a few days (Smokers longer) Acne disappears in a short time Earache disappears Improves Organ efficiency when zapper is placed over Organ Reduces symptoms of PMS No more migraines No more depression (most throw away brain drugs) Stops itching Ringworm gone the next day Scabies eliminated in one day Breathing improves Less body,breath and foot ordor. Orgone Accumulator Helmet with Zappers

Applied PsychologyApplied Psychology

The Role of Theory The Role of Theory

Applied PsychologyApplied Psychology

Manipulations in Natural Settings Manipulations in Natural Settings Non Experimental Observations– Candid Camera Non Experimental Observations– Candid Camera

Applied PsychologyApplied Psychology

Manipulations in Natural Settings Manipulations in Natural Settings A laboratory analog experiment on conformity A laboratory analog experiment on conformity Asch’s conformity experiment Asch’s conformity experiment

Situations andSituations and

issues that are issues that are

difficult to study difficult to study

are examined by are examined by

design of design of

Analog Analog Experiments Experiments

Bandura’s “Bobo Doll” studies of aggression modelingBandura’s “Bobo Doll” studies of aggression modeling

Applied Psychology Applied Psychology

Analog Experiments Analog Experiments

Children watched an Children watched an adult being either adult being either peaceful or violent peaceful or violent to a BOBO doll to a BOBO doll Children were then Children were then observed when they observed when they had a chance to play had a chance to play with the doll. Those with the doll. Those who saw the violent who saw the violent adult copied the adult copied the aggression. aggression.

Analog ExperimentsAnalog Experiments

Bandura’s study of Aggression Bandura’s study of Aggression Modeling Modeling

Applied PsychologyApplied Psychology

Analog Experiments Analog Experiments

Ainsworth’s ‘Strange Situation’ experiment on the infant Ainsworth’s ‘Strange Situation’ experiment on the infant

attachment relationship attachment relationship