Introduction to Psychology Intro101-Lecture Notes -Psychology, Study notes of Psychology

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What is Psychology? What is Psychology?

According to the APA, “psychology” is defined as: Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. The discipline embraces all aspects of the human experience--from the functions of the brain to the actions of nations, from child development to care for the aged. In every conceivable setting from scientific research centers to mental health care services, “the understanding of behavior” is the enterprise of psychologists.

Divisions of the APA

Lecture Overview Lecture Overview

„„^ Close Encounters with the Strange:Close Encounters with the Strange:

On knowledge, belief, and evidenceOn knowledge, belief, and evidence

„„ Conducting a Scientific Investigation:Conducting a Scientific Investigation:

Theoretical DevelopmentTheoretical Development

VariablesVariables

Research DesignsResearch Designs

Close Encounters Close Encounters

with the Strangewith the Strange

Belief Sampler Belief Sampler

% of Americans% of Americans 4848 3535 5656 4242 7272 2525 4545

PhenomenonPhenomenon ESPESP TelepathyTelepathy the Devilthe Devil Possession by DevilPossession by Devil AngelsAngels AstrologyAstrology UFO’s have visited EarthUFO’s have visited Earth

Source: Gallup poll survey, 1996

Belief Sampler Belief Sampler

% of Biology/Life Sciences% of Biology/Life Sciences High School Teachers BelievingHigh School Teachers Believing 4343 2020 1919 2020 1616 3030 2626 2222

PhenomenonPhenomenon Story of Flood and Noah’s Ark is trueStory of Flood and Noah’s Ark is true Communication with dead possibleCommunication with dead possible Dinosaurs and humans lived at same timeDinosaurs and humans lived at same time Black magic realBlack magic real Atlantis existedAtlantis existed Creation Science should be taughtCreation Science should be taught Some races more intelligent than othersSome races more intelligent than others Ghosts are realGhosts are real Source: Rothman, 1988

Are the claims reasonable? Are the claims reasonable?

„ „ Possible criteria that you could use toPossible criteria that you could use to

evaluate the claims:evaluate the claims:

„„^ Is it logically possible?Is it logically possible? „„ But, just because something is logically possible doesn’tBut, just because something is logically possible doesn’t mean that it’s real.mean that it’s real. „„^ Is it physically possible?Is it physically possible? „„^ But, just because something is physically possible doesn’tBut, just because something is physically possible doesn’t mean that it’s real.mean that it’s real.

Are the claims reasonable? Are the claims reasonable?

„„ Possible criteria that you could use toPossible criteria that you could use to

evaluate the claims (cont.):evaluate the claims (cont.):

„ „ Has it been conclusively refutedHas it been conclusively refuted ??

„ „ But, just because a claim hasn’t been conclusivelyBut, just because a claim hasn’t been conclusively refuted doesn’t mean it’s true.refuted doesn’t mean it’s true. „ „ Conversely, just because a claim hasn’t been conclusivelyConversely, just because a claim hasn’t been conclusively proven doesn’t mean that it’s false.proven doesn’t mean that it’s false. „ „ (^) Arguments of this sort commit the fallacy ofArguments of this sort commit the fallacy of Appeal to ignoranceAppeal to ignorance..

A claim’s truth is established by the amountA claim’s truth is established by the amount

of evidence in it’s favor, not by the lack ofof evidence in it’s favor, not by the lack of

evidence against it (or for it).evidence against it (or for it).

On evidence: On evidence:

Folklore or tradition accept it.Folklore or tradition accept it.

„ „ Groups of people can be wrong for the sameGroups of people can be wrong for the same reasons that individuals are wrong (e.g., Man in thereasons that individuals are wrong (e.g., Man in the moon, bloodletting, witch trials).moon, bloodletting, witch trials).

„ „ Folklore and tradition can provide leads as to why aFolklore and tradition can provide leads as to why a particular phenomenon may occur, but to specifyparticular phenomenon may occur, but to specify precisely why it occurs (or whether a practice isprecisely why it occurs (or whether a practice is even reliable) you need controlled tests.even reliable) you need controlled tests.

On evidence: On evidence:

“ I saw it with my own eyes.”“ I saw it with my own eyes.”

„ „ Is it “Seeing is believing”, or “BelievingIs it “Seeing is believing”, or “Believing

is seeing”?is seeing”?

„ „ Our beliefs do not always have a direct one-Our beliefs do not always have a direct one-toto--oneone correspondence with external reality.correspondence with external reality.

• – E.g., Perceptual Construction (Color constancies)E.g., Perceptual Construction (Color constancies) Expectancies and Beliefs (Expectancies and Beliefs (pareidoliapareidolia), Selective), Selective Attention (lunar effect,Attention (lunar effect, ForerForer effect), Selfeffect), Self--fulfillingfulfilling propheciesprophecies

„ „ It is reasonable to accept personal experience asIt is reasonable to accept personal experience as reliable evidence if there’s no reason to doubt it’sreliable evidence if there’s no reason to doubt it’s reliability.reliability.

Looking for clarity in Looking for clarity in

vaguenessvagueness

On evidence: On evidence:

An expert claims it’s true.An expert claims it’s true.

„„^ Experts can be wrong. (Remember continental driftExperts can be wrong. (Remember continental drift theory? How about phrenology?)theory? How about phrenology?) Consensus, in theConsensus, in the absence of compelling evidence, is never sufficientabsence of compelling evidence, is never sufficient justification for believing in anything.justification for believing in anything.

„„^ An expert is qualified in a particular field.An expert is qualified in a particular field. Be awareBe aware of Dr.’s with degrees outside of the area they claimof Dr.’s with degrees outside of the area they claim

to have expertise. (E.g.,to have expertise. (E.g., BacksterBackster and theand theSecret LifeSecret Life

of Plantsof Plants))

On evidence: On evidence:

A scientific study substantiatesA scientific study substantiates

„ „ Scientific Method:Scientific Method: „ „ Propose theoretical explanation for phenomenonPropose theoretical explanation for phenomenon „ „ Deduce (or induce) specific hypotheses that mustDeduce (or induce) specific hypotheses that must be true if the theory is truebe true if the theory is true „ „ (^) Test the hypotheses with empirical data.Test the hypotheses with empirical data. „ „ Peer Review and ReplicationPeer Review and Replication

„ „ Assumption: Objective reality exists.Assumption: Objective reality exists.

• – Relativism (reality depends on our thoughts about it)Relativism (reality depends on our thoughts about it) versus realism (reality has nothing to do with ourversus realism (reality has nothing to do with our thoughts about it)thoughts about it)

Conducting a Conducting a

Scientific StudyScientific Study

„„Theoretical DevelopmentTheoretical Development

„„Research DesignsResearch Designs

„„VariablesVariables

• -Theories are systematic statements ofTheories are systematic statements of

principles that explain naturalprinciples that explain natural

phenomenon.phenomenon.

• -Theories and empirical research areTheories and empirical research are

connected by hypothesesconnected by hypotheses----testabletestable

propositions logically derived frompropositions logically derived from

theories.theories.

• -State theoryState theory
• -Derive specific predictions from theoryDerive specific predictions from theory
• -Determine research designDetermine research design
• -Run pilot study then the actual studyRun pilot study then the actual study
• -Run descriptive statistics on dataRun descriptive statistics on data
• -Run inferential statistics on data to testRun inferential statistics on data to test

predictionspredictions

• -Revise theoryRevise theory

Generalized View of ScientificGeneralized View of Scientific

MethodMethod

Empirical research involves theEmpirical research involves the

measurement of observable events.measurement of observable events.

Variables are elements in studies that are Variables are elements in studies that are

manipulated, compared, and/ormanipulated, compared, and/or

controlled.controlled.

Variables are any characteristic or qualityVariables are any characteristic or quality

that differs in degree or kind and canthat differs in degree or kind and can

be measured.be measured.

VariablesVariables

Variables possess values or levels--Variables possess values or levels--thesethese

are the dimensions on which they vary.are the dimensions on which they vary.

e.g., Gender, TV Viewing Duration, Haire.g., Gender, TV Viewing Duration, Hair

ColorColor

Independent Variable (IV)Independent Variable (IV)

-Variable systematically altered or-Variable systematically altered or

manipulatedmanipulated

-Conditions of the IV are referred to as-Conditions of the IV are referred to as

levelslevels orortreatmentstreatments

-Other names for IV: experimental or-Other names for IV: experimental or

predictor variablepredictor variable

Dependent Variable (DV)Dependent Variable (DV)

• -Variable that is affected by theVariable that is affected by the

manipulation of the IV.manipulation of the IV.

-Other names for DV: Outcome,-Other names for DV: Outcome,

response, or criterion variableresponse, or criterion variable

Operational Definitions Operational Definitions

„ „ Variables are specified by their operationalVariables are specified by their operational

definitions.definitions.

„ „ Psychological constructs (e.g., aggression,Psychological constructs (e.g., aggression,

intelligence, learning) must be defined inintelligence, learning) must be defined in

terms that are observable and measurable.terms that are observable and measurable.

„ „ Purpose: To enhance thePurpose: To enhance the replicablilityreplicablility of theof the

study.study.

Operational Definitions: Operational Definitions:

LatrinaliaLatrinalia

LocationLocation Building (1, 2, 3…8)Building (1, 2, 3…8) GenderGender Primary ContentPrimary Content Heterosexual Sex and RelationshipsHeterosexual Sex and Relationships Homosexual Sex and RelationshipsHomosexual Sex and Relationships PoliticsPolitics ReligionReligion SchoolSchool Sororities and FraternitiesSororities and Fraternities NamesNames PlacesPlaces DrugsDrugs NonsenseNonsense MiscMisc

FormForm WordsWords DrawingDrawing Drawing and WordsDrawing and Words PoetryPoetry OtherOther

Affective ToneAffective Tone Pos, Neutral,Pos, Neutral, NegNeg, Mixed, Other, Mixed, Other

Responses to other graffittiResponses to othergraffitti Yes, No or Cannot SayYes, No or Cannot Say

Overview of Research Designs Overview of Research Designs

„ „ NonNon--ExperimentalExperimental

„ „ Correlational Research (e.g. observational,CorrelationalResearch (e.g. observational,

archival, questionnaires, interviews, personalarchival, questionnaires, interviews, personal

documents)documents)

„ „ Experimental Research DesignsExperimental Research Designs

„ „ True (Randomized) ExperimentsTrue (Randomized) Experiments

„ „ Quasi-Quasi-ExperimentsExperiments

Correlational Research: CorrelationalResearch:

LaughterLaughter

Gender differences in laughter (Bachorowski et al.) Type of Laughter Women Men Sing-song (voiced) 50% 33% Grunt (exhaling through mouth) 25% 33% Snort (inhaling through nose) 25% 33% When do we laugh? (Provine et al.) •80% in social situations •46% more speaker laughs compared to listener •People laugh more at male speakers •Laughter rarely interrupts speech

Correlational Observations: CorrelationalObservations: Birth Control by the Toaster MethodBirth Control by the Toaster Method

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

0 5 10 15 Number of Appliances in Home

Number of Children

„ „ Get a handle on cause and effectGet a handle on cause and effect

„ „ The case of PelagraThe case ofPelagra and J. Goldbergerand J. Goldberger

„ „ ControlControl andandRandom Assignment areRandom Assignmentare

defining features of an experiment.defining features of an experiment.

Randomized ExperimentRandomized Experiment

Internal Validity Internal Validity

Degree to which IV produced theDegree to which IV produced the

change observed in the DVchange observed in the DV

External ValidityExternal Validity

Degree to which we can generalize orDegree to which we can generalize or

apply the results outside of the originalapply the results outside of the original

studystudy

ValidityValidity