Leadership, Communication, and Organizational Culture, Exams of Nursing

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BU288 Exam questions with correct answers

Leadership definition Correct Answer-The influence that particular individuals exert on employees' goal achievement in organizations. Three leadership theories Correct Answer-1. Trait theories

2. Behavioural theories
3. Situational/contingency theories Behavioural theories: two leader behaviours Correct Answer-1. Consideration
4. Initiating structure Consideration leadership Correct Answer-- approachable, shows concern, supportive

• positively related to follower satisfaction, motivation, and commitment Initiating-structure leadership Correct Answer-- degree to which leader behaviors facilitate group goal attainment
• Positively related to leader+group performance and employee productivity Situational leadership theories: two known theories Correct Answer-- Contingency theory (Fiedler's)
• Path-goal Theory (House's) Path-goal theory Correct Answer-- Leader's job is to assist followers in attaining their goals
• Clear the path to the goal for employees

Situational factors in path-goal theory Correct Answer-- employee characteristics

• environmental factors Path-goal theory leadership behaviours Correct Answer-- directive
• supportive
• participative
• achievement oriented Styles of emergent leadership Correct Answer-- task leader
• social-emotional leader Leaders vs Managers Correct Answer-- Leaders seek and implement change, provide vision, and cause pain
• maintain the status quo Transactional leadership definition Correct Answer-Leadership based on straightforward exchange b/n leader and followers Styles of transactional leadership Correct Answer-- contingent reward
• management by exception (passive)
• management by exception (active) Laissez-faire leadership definition Correct Answer-Leaders who play a very passive role and provide limited instructions, contact and takes the approach of letting people do their job

Transformational leadership definition Correct Answer-Leadership that provides followers with a new vision that instill true commitment Styles of transformational leadership Correct Answer-(four I's)

• Intellectual stimulation
• Individualized consideration
• Inspirational motivation
• Idealized influence (charisma) Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory definition Correct Answer-A theory that focuses on the quality of relationship b/n a leader and a follower
• interdependent transactions of things of value generate high-quality relationships
• involves norms of reciprocity Antecedents to LMX Correct Answer-Followers:
• competent, agreeable, conscientious, extraverted Leaders:
• extraverted, agreeable
• engage in contingent reward behaviour
• engage in transformational leadership Servant leadership definition Correct Answer-leadership that goes beyond one's self-interests and has genuine concern to serve others and a motivation to lead Communication definition Correct Answer-The process by which information is exchanged between a sender and a receiver

Effective communication definition Correct Answer-Communication that occurs when the right person receives the right info at the right time Communication model Correct Answer-Message to send -> encode message -> SEND -> decode message -> message receive Communication barriers Correct Answer-- Mum effect

• Evaluation apprehension
• Groupthink
• Competition and conflict Gender and Communication Correct Answer-Women are more concerned with making connections
• polite
• give indirect orders
• offer praise before criticism Men are more concerned with establishing status
• takes credit
• Minimize blame put on them
• give direct orders Characteristics of organizational culture Correct Answer-- consists of values, beliefs and norms
• strong impact on employee behaviour, satisfaction and performance

Strong culture definition Correct Answer-Widespread agreement about how to do things. People value and believe the same things, and do things similarly. Weak culture definition Correct Answer-Little consensus about who we are and what we do, variability in what people value and believe. Contributors of culture Correct Answer-- founder/CEO

• Management
• Emergent leaders Socialization definition Correct Answer-merging individuals into "the way" things are done, shared attitudes, values and beliefs Socialization step Correct Answer-1. Selecting & orientation of employees

2. Debasement + hazing
3. Training in the "Trenches"
4. Reward and promotion
5. Exposure to core culture
6. Organizational folklore
7. Role Models Cultural artifacts Correct Answer-- symbols

• rituals
• stories Causes of change Correct Answer-- competition

• world politics
• economic shocks
• tech
• info processing and communication
• people Lewin's model of change Correct Answer-Unfreeze -> Change -> Refreeze Factors inhibiting culture change Correct Answer-- culture developed over many years
• selection and promotion policies
• Top management chooses managers to maintain culture
• Remaining artifacts reinforce culture Factors facilitating culture change Correct Answer-- Dramatic crisis
• Turnover in leadership
• Organization is young and small
• Weak culture Power definition Correct Answer-The capacity to influence others who are in a state of dependence Types of power Correct Answer-- Positional power (legitimate power)
• Resource power (person can reward, punish, has expert skills, admired/liked) Five bases of individual power Correct Answer-- legitimate power

• reward power
• coercive power
• referent power
• expert power Reactions to power Correct Answer-- resistance
• compliance
• commitment How does one get power? Correct Answer-- extraordinary activities
• highly visible
• relevant activities Organizational politics Correct Answer-The pursuit of self-interest in an organization, whether or not this self-interest corresponds to organizational goals. Ethics definition Correct Answer-code of moral principles and values that governs people's behaviour with respect to what is right or wrong Ethical principles Correct Answer-- Utility
• Justice
• Rights Utilitarian ethics definition Correct Answer-Behaviour is ethical if it leads to the best desired outcome
• easy to apply

• may ignore rights/justice of some individuals Rights ethics definition Correct Answer-Behaviour is ethical if it respects the fundamental rights shared by all human beings
• easy to apply
• what if one person's rights creates harm to many people
• can hinder productivity and efficiency Justice ethics definition Correct Answer-Behaviour is ethical if it is fair and impartial to people
• protects interest of under-represented and less power
• difficult to define "fairness" Causes of unethical behaviour (categories) Correct Answer-bad apple: personality causes
• need for power
• Machiavellianism and bad barrel: situational causes
• organizational culture
• unethical leaders/role models
• competition over scarce models Causes of unethical behaviour Correct Answer-- gain
• role conflict
• competition
• personality

• culture Personality definition Correct Answer-the relatively stable set of psychological characteristics that influences the way an individual interacts with his or her environment Three approaches to explaining behaviour Correct Answer-- Dispositional approach
• Situational approach
• Interactionist approach Dispositional approach definition Correct Answer-Individuals possess stable traits or characteristics that influence their attitudes and behaviours Situational approach definition Correct Answer-Characteristics of the organizational setting influence people's attitude and behaviour
• weak situation (not clear how to behave)
• strong situation (clear expectations for behaviour) Interactionist approach definition Correct Answer-Individual's attitudes and behaviour are a function of both dispositions and the situation Trait Activation Theory definition Correct Answer-Traits lead to certain behaviours only when the situation makes the trait salient Factors of the Five-factor model of personality Correct Answer-- extraversion
• emotional stability/neuroticism
• agreeableness

• conscientiousness
• openness to experience Locus of Control definition Correct Answer-A set of beliefs about whether one's behaviour is controlled mainly by internal or external forces
• high internal: believe that opportunity to control behaviour is in themselves
• high external: believes that external forces control their behaviour Self monitoring definition Correct Answer-The extent to which people observe and regulate how they appear and behave in social settings and relationships
• low self monitors: people who don't care about fitting in
• high self monitors: care to observe thoughts, actions and feelings of those around them High self monitors behaviour Correct Answer-gravitate towards jobs that need role-playing and exercise of their self-presentation skills
• more more likely to be leaders
• more likely to experience role stress Behavioural plasticity theory definition Correct Answer-People with low self- esteem tend to be more susceptible to external and social influences than those who have self esteem Self esteem definition Correct Answer-The degree to which a person has a positive self-evaluation
• high: make more fulfilling career decisions, high satisfaction/performance, resilient

• low: react badly to feedback, willing to imitate good roll model Positive affectivity definition Correct Answer-Propensity to view everything in a positive light.
• higher job satisfaction/performance, creative, links happiness and success at work and life Negative affectivity definition Correct Answer-Propensity to view everything in a negative light
• more stress, counterproductive behaviour, withdrawal behaviours, occupational injuries Proactive behaviour definition Correct Answer-Taking initiative to improve current circumstances or creating new ones Proactive personality definition Correct Answer-A stable personal disposition that reflects a tendency to take personal initiative across a range of activities and situations and to affect positive change in one's environment General self-efficacy definition Correct Answer-A general trait that refers to an individual's belief in his or her ability to perform successfully in a variety of challenging situations Core self-evaluations definition Correct Answer-A broad personality concept that consists of more specific traits that reflect the evaluations people hold about themselves and their self-worth Traits that make up core self-evaluation Correct Answer-- self esteem
• general self efficacy

• locus of control
• neuroticism Learning definition Correct Answer-A relatively permanent change in behaviour potential that occurs due to practice or experience Primary categories of learning content Correct Answer-- practical skills (job specific skills)
• intrapersonal skills (critical thinking, etc.)
• interpersonal skills (interactive skills)
• cultural awareness (social norms, company culture) Operant learning theory definition Correct Answer-Learning by which the subject learn to operate on the environment to achieve certain consequences
• behaviour learned through consequences Law of effect definition Correct Answer-People repeat behaviours that bring them satisfaction and pleasure, and stop those that bring them displeasure Reinforcement definition Correct Answer-The process by which stimuli strengthen behaviours - increases or maintains probability of that behaviour Positive reinforcement Correct Answer-The application or addition of a stimulus (pleasant stuff) that increases or maintains the probability in some behaviour Negative reinforcement Correct Answer-The removal of a stimulus that in turn increases or maintains the probability of some behaviour
• makes individual wanna adjust behaviour to remove stimulus

Organizational errors involving reinforcement Correct Answer-- confusing rewards with reinforcers

• Neglecting diversity in preferences for reinforcers
• Neglecting important sources of reinforcement (performance feedback, and social recognition) Reinforcement strategies Correct Answer-- continuous and immediate reinforcement
• partial and delayed reinforcement Continuous and immediate reinforcement Correct Answer-- Used to obtain a fast acquisition of some response
• behaviour learned under such conditions tend not to persist when reinforcement stops Partial and delayed reinforcement Correct Answer-Behaviour tends to be persisted when learned under this condition Strategies to reduce the probability of behaviour Correct Answer-- extinction
• punishment Extinction definition Correct Answer-The gradual dissipation of behaviour following the termination of reinforcement Punishment definition Correct Answer-The application of an aversive stimulus following some behaviour designed to decrease the probability of that behaviour

Strategies to increase punishment Correct Answer-- provide substitute to make punishment clear

• be sure emotions are under control before punishing
• make sure punishment is truly aversive
• punish immediately (before it gets worse)
• do not reward unwanted behaviour (before or after)
• do not inadvertently punish desirable behaviour Social Cognitive Theory definition Correct Answer-Emphasizes the role of cognitive processes in learning and in regulation of people's behaviour Components of Social Cognitive Theory Correct Answer-- observational learning
• self-efficacy beliefs
• self-regulation Observational learning definition Correct Answer-The process of observing and imitating the behaviour of others
• includes seeing the consequences others experience Self-efficacy beliefs definition Correct Answer-Beliefs people have about their ability to successfully perform a specific task
• based on performance mastery, observation of others, persuasion and influence, and physiological and emotional state Self regulation Correct Answer-The use of learning principles to regulate one's own behaviour
• discrepancy detected

• discrepancy reduction
• discrepancy production Self regulation techniques Correct Answer-- collect self observation data
• observe models
• set goals
• rehearse
• reinforce oneself Organizational behaviour modification definition Correct Answer-The systematic use of learning principles to influence OB Employee recognition programs definition Correct Answer-Formal organizational programs that publicly recognize and reward employees for specific behaviours Peer recognition programs definition Correct Answer-Formal programs in which employees can publicly acknowledge, recognize and reward co-workers for exceptional work and performance Training and development definition Correct Answer-- Training is planned organizational activities that are designed to facilitate knowledge and skill acquisition to change behaviour and improve performance on one's current job
• development focuses on future job responsibilities Behaviour modelling training definition Correct Answer-One of the most widely used and effective methods of training based on observational learning component of social cognitive theory

Steps in behaviour modelling training Correct Answer-1. describe to trainees set of well-defined behaviours to be learned

2. provide a model or models displaying the effective use of those behaviours
3. provide opportunities for trainees to practice using those behaviours
4. provide feedback and social reinforcements to trainees following practice
5. take steps to maximize the transfer of those behaviours to the job Perception definition Correct Answer-The process of interpreting the messages of or senses to provide order and meaning to the environment

• important b/c people act on what they perceive of reality, rather than reality itself Components of perception Correct Answer-- perceiver
• target that is being perceived
• some situational context in which the perception is occurring Perception perceiver Correct Answer-- perceiver's experience, needs, and emotions can affect perception of target
• past exp. creates expectations Perceptual defense definition Correct Answer-The tendency for the perceptual system to defend the perceiver against unpleasant emotions
• "see what we want to see" Perception target Correct Answer-- perception involves interpretation and addition of meaning to target
• perceiver does not/cannot always use all info provided by target and there maybe misperception

Perception Situation Correct Answer-- situation provides info/context about target

• can change perception without changing perceiver or target
• need to take different perspectives to see bigger pic of the problem Priming definition Correct Answer-preparing mind with certain context to see something in a certain way Social identity theory definition Correct Answer-States that people form perceptions of themselves based on their personal characteristics and membership in social categories
• personal vs social identity
• we form perceptions of others based on their memberships in social categories
• your perception of others is a function of how you categorize yourself since we associate people with their social category relative to other categories Model of the Perceptual Process Correct Answer-1. perceiver encounters unfamiliar target - open to info cues contained in situation and target

2. perceiver gains some familiar cues - makes categorization of the target and searches for cues that confirm categorization
3. original categorization can be changed if there an overwhelming amount of cues against original categorization Important characteristics of perception Correct Answer-- perception is selective

• perception tends to be constant
• perception tends to be consistent

Primacy effect definition Correct Answer-The tendency for a perceiver to rely on early cues or first impressions

• strongest effect since you always want to remain a constant image of the person Recency effect definition Correct Answer-the tendency for a perceiver to rely on recent cues or last impressions Central traits definition Correct Answer-personal characteristics of a target person that are a particular interest to a perceiver
• depends on perceiver's interest and situation Biases in person perception Correct Answer-- primacy effect
• recency effect
• central traits Implicit personality theories definition Correct Answer-Personal theories that people have about which personality characteristics go together (eg you expect hardworking people to be honest) Projection definition Correct Answer-The tendency for perceivers to attribute your own thoughts and feelings to others
• assumes people think the same you do Stereotyping definition Correct Answer-The tendency to generalize about people in a certain social category and ignore variations among them Aspects to stereotyping Correct Answer-- we distinguish some category of people
• we assume that individuals in this category have certain traits

• we perceive that everyone in this category possesses these traits Attribution definition Correct Answer-The process by which causes and motives are assigned to explain people's behaviour
• important to determine whether behaviour is caused by dispositional or situational factors Dispositional attribution definition Correct Answer-Explanations for behaviour based on an actor's personality or intellect Situational attribution definition Correct Answer-Explanations for behaviour based on an actor's external situation or environment Different cues used to explain behaviour Correct Answer-- Consistency cues
• consensus cues
• distinctive cues Biases in attribution Correct Answer-- fundamental attribution error
• actor observer effect
• self-serving bias fundamental attribution error definition Correct Answer-Tendency to overemphasize dispositional explanations for behaviour at the expense of situational explanations Actor observer effect definition Correct Answer-Propensity for actors and observers to view the causes of the actor's behaviour differently

• actors behave a certain way due to environment while observers think its disposition Self-serving bias Correct Answer-Tendency to take credit for successful outcomes and deny responsibility for failure Arguments in favour for diversity in organizations Correct Answer-- cost argument
• resource-acquisition argument
• marketing argument
• creativity argument
• problem solving argument
• system flexibility argument Trust definition Correct Answer-Psychological state in which one as a willingness to be vulnerable and to take risks with respect to the actions of another party Perceptions of management that build trust Correct Answer-- ability
• benevolence
• integrity Perceived organizational support (POS) definition Correct Answer-Employee's general belief that their organization values their contribution and cares about their well being
• believes that organization will provide support to do their job properly Organizational support theory definition Correct Answer-Theory that states that employees who have strong perceptions of organizational support feel an

obligation to care about the organization's welfare and to help the organization achieve its objectives Perceived supervisor support definition Correct Answer-Employee's general belief that supervisor values their contribution and cares about their well-being

• contributes to POS Signalling theory definition Correct Answer-Job applicants interpret their recruitment experiences as cues or signals about unknown characteristics of a job and an org. Contrast effects definition Correct Answer-Previously interviewed job applicants affect an interviewer's perception of a current applicant, leading to an exaggeration of difference between applicants Values definition Correct Answer-Broad tendency to prefer certain states of affairs over others Factors of how work-related values differ among cultures Correct Answer-- power distance
• uncertain avoidance
• masculinity/femininity
• individualistic vs collectivism
• long/short term orientation
• cultural distance Attitude definition Correct Answer-A fairly stable evaluative tendency to respond consistency to some object, situation, person, or category of people

• not always consistent with behaviour and provide useful info that go beyond the actions we can observe
• product of beliefs and values Components of attitudes Correct Answer-- what we think (cognitive component)
• what we feel (affective component)
• what we tend to do vs. what we avoid Job satisfaction definition Correct Answer-A collection of attitudes that workers have about their jobs Aspects of satisfaction Correct Answer-- facet satisfaction (more or less satisfied with various facets of the job)
• overall satisfaction (overall indicator of person's attitude towards his job) Facets of satisfaction (measured by Job Descriptive index) Correct Answer-- people
• pay
• supervision
• promotions
• work itself Discrepancy Theory definition Correct Answer-A theory that job satisfaction stems from discrepancy between job outcomes wanted and outcomes perceived to be obtained Distributive fairness definition Correct Answer-Fairness that occurs when people receive the outcomes that they think they deserve for their job

• equity theory Equity theory definition Correct Answer-A theory that job satisfaction stems from a comparison of the inputs one invests in a job and the outcomes one receives in comparison with the inputs and outcomes of another person/group Procedural fairness Correct Answer-Fairness that occurs when process used to determine work outcomes is seen as reasonable Interactional fairness Correct Answer-Fairness that occurs when people feel they have received respectful and informative communication about an outcome Emotions definition Correct Answer-intense, often short-lived feelings caused by a particular event Moods definition Correct Answer-Less intense, longer-lived, and more diffused feelings Emotional contagion definition Correct Answer-Tendency for moods and emotions to spread b/n people or throughout a group Consequences of job satisfaction Correct Answer-- absence from work
• turnover
• performance
• organizational citizenship behaviour
• customer satisfaction and profit

Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) Correct Answer-Voluntary, informal behaviour that contributes to organizational effectiveness Organizational commitment definition Correct Answer-Attitude that reflects the strength of the linkage b/n employee and organization Types of commitment Correct Answer-- affective commitment (based on identification and involvement)

• continuance commitment (based on costs that would be incurred from leaving organization)
• normative commitment (based on ideology or feeling of obligation to organization) Group definition Correct Answer-Two or more people interacting interdependently to achieve a common goal Formal work groups definition Correct Answer-groups that are established by organizations to facilitate the achievement of organizational goals Informal groups definition Correct Answer-Groups that emerge naturally in response to the common interests of organizational members Stages of group development Correct Answer-1. forming

2. storming
3. norming
4. performing
5. adjourning

Punctuated equilibrium model definition Correct Answer-A model of group development that describes how groups with deadlines are affected by their first meetings and crucial midpoint transitions Punctuated equilibrium model Correct Answer-1. Phase 1 - first meeting and continues until midpoint

2. Midpoint transition - halfway poitn to deadline
3. Phase 2 - decisions and approaches adopted at midpoint used Types of tasks Correct Answer-- additive tasks

• disjunctive tasks
• conjunctive tasks Process losses definition Correct Answer-Group performance difficulties stemming from the problems of motivating and coordinating large groups
• problems with communication and decision making increase with size Norms definition Correct Answer-Collective expectations that members of social units have regarding the behaviour of eacch other Roles definition Correct Answer-Positions in a group that have a set of expected behaviours attached to them Types of roles Correct Answer-- designated/assigned roles
• emergent roles Role ambiguity definition Correct Answer-Lack of clarity of job goals or methods