Midterm Exam Study Guide for Western Civilization to 1500 | HIST 1001, Study notes of World History

Download Midterm Exam Study Guide for Western Civilization to 1500 | HIST 1001 and more Study notes World History in PDF only on Docsity! June 9, 2014 What is history? - The study of human beings after they learned to write - Mesopotamians were the first to write Why do we study history? - (Greek) Heroditus – We study history because it is fun and interesting - (Greek) Thucydides – Thought that something can be learned from contemporary history, it’s cyclical, we learn from the past - (Roman) Livy – Looked at all history as a record of human experiences – learn from the past so we don’t perpetuate bad decisions in the future - Machiavelli – Viewed history as a way to teach. Knowledge = power – know the past to make good future decisions - Ken Burns – Used history to understand who we are and where we come from – history defines who we are – modern view June 10, 2014 Mesopotamia: The Fertile Crescent  How do we define a civilization? o Complex culture o Large number of people o From the Latin word “Civilis” o Distinct religious structure regulated by priestly class o Political and military structures o Social structure based on economic standing (division of labor) o System of writing o Significant artistic and intellectual activities (scientific thought, temples) o Legal and political hierarchy o Starts with planning a city o First civilization was Mesopotamia  Mesopotamian Civilizations o Sumerians : 3100 BCE  Located in the lower delta region of the Tigris/Euphrates  Their language was not related to anything in the region  They liked the region because of it’s fertile soil and access to the Persian gulf  Farming, Herding, and Gathering  Eridu – the earliest settlement of the region (5400 BCE)  Sumerian City-State  50,000 inhabitants – expanded outward  Lacked natural boundaries, so they formed groups of city states  They formed cities first, then irrigation occurred o Akkadians : 2350 – 2200 BCE  Sargon the Great (2371 – 2316 BCE)  It was said he was found abandoned and floating down a river  Ruled area from Persian Gulf to Asia Minor  His goal: to police trade routes - he made the first standing army  He relied heavily on family ties to govern (created a dynasty) o Babylonians : 1800-1600 BCE (AKA AMORITES)  Hammurabi : 1792 – 1750 BCE  Took all of Mesopotamia  Known as the “King of the Four Corners of the Earth”  Developed the Code of Hammurabi o It was etched in stone – a mixture of civil and criminal laws o The goal: to heighten Hammurabi’s power by making people come to him to solve their grievances  Geography o Mesopotamia –  Greek word meaning – “between the rivers”  Mesopotamia was between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers o Fertile Crescent –  Persian Gulf to modern day Syria – the Euphrates and Tigris rivers flooded violently - to farm successfully it required lots of work, when the land flooded, the farmers had to rebuild everything o Mesopotamian Mixing Bowl  Many outside influences because of changing power over time  The new conquerors of the region adopt Mesopotamian customs in place already  Led to a continuation of customs and religions  It’s the opposite of what is seen in most conquests  Mesopotamian Religion o Mesopotamians were polytheistic (belief in multiple gods) o They were also animistic (the belief that certain things had spirits)  Each city in Mesopotamia had a patron god o Sinai Peninsula – the only way to reach Egypt by land  HYKSOS used this to penetrate Egypt proper – (expelled in new kingdom period) o Invasions were rare in Egypt  Invaders didn’t stay long and didn’t adopt all the trappings of Egyptians culture like the Mesopotamian invaders did  Egyptians thought the natural world was constant and not changing, like their borders and had a positive relationship with their environment (UNLIKE Mesopotamians) o Egyptian Chronology (old, middle, new kingdom)  Early Dynastic Period  Old Kingdom  1st Intermediate I. Egyptian Geography  Egypt was developed between t 4000 and 3000 BCE  Egyptian geography is key to understanding how Egyptians acted and developed their thought  Nile flows from South to North, toward the Mediterranean Sea o Egypt’s upper kingdom is actually in the South, it’s lower kingdom was up toward the Delta o Nile was key to transportation and agricultural needs o Early on, Egyptians developed little boats with a sail to move around, this made trade and transportation of food fairly easy – led to prosperity o The region’s wind pattern flows southward  Power of Wind – used to go up  Power of the River – used to go down II. Egyptian Religion  Egyptians had Polytheistic religious beliefs  Egyptians believed in an afterlife – death viewed as a transition (from the world of living to the world of dead)  Positive relationship with their environment (UNLIKE Mesopotamians) o East bank of Nile represented LIFE - West bank of Nile represented DEATH o This idea was reinforced every time Egyptians walked outside – life versus no life in vegetation – not only is there a distinction between life and death, but the Nile is Egyptian’s lifeblood  Egyptian Gods and Ruler o Egyptian Gods had a good relationship with people o Ma’at – means harmony and the right order of things  Egyptians believed that if Ma’at was preserved, people could count on life being good  It was important that everything remained harmonious, this could be derived from the regular flowing of the Nile  Not preserving Ma’at means bad things happen  Preserving Ma’at was the responsibility of Pharaoh o Pharaoh  Mesopotamian King – God’s representative on Earth  Pharaoh – partly of not wholly divine  To help him preserve Ma’at – he had special priests (just like in Mesopotamia) – these priests could be powerful  They had to preserve Pharaoh’s body after death  They had an idea that you could die and come back in your physical essence in the afterlife (renewal of body in afterlife)  If the body was preserved correctly, it could be inhabited by your KAH (soul)  Book of the Dead – how to navigate afterlife and return to your body – rewarded for doing good things on this earth – Egyptians believe in the afterlife - I’m pure I’m pure - you have a positive outlook as opposed to MESO negative outlook  Ammon-Ra, Isis, Osiris, Horus, Anubis – Egyptian Gods  Mummies and Pyramids o Mummies were just for pharaohs, then wealthy people, then everyone, even sometimes pets! o Practiced well into Roman period (4,000 years) o Pyramids were massive tombs built during Old Kingdom Pyramid then stopped being built because they couldn’t keep robbers out!  During New Kingdom, the Pharaoh’s built secret tombs in the Valley of the Kings III. Language and Writing Style  Egyptians had a highly developed writing system – as was evident all over their temples and tombs o Hieroglyphics – in Greek means “Priest’s carving”  1798 – Rosetta Stone was discovered – When Alexander took over Egypt, the Rosetta Stone was found o It was a marker by Ptolemy to local group of priests, the royal decree is recorded in Hieroglyphs, Greek (Royal language of Helenistic rulers) and Demotic (common spoken language in Egypt) – allowing them to crack the code using the Greek Section o Jean-Francois Champollion – is credited for cracking heiroglyphics o Hieroglyphics is highly complicated – priests and scribes became literate because they had time to learn it – (JUST LIKE in Mesopotamia)  Papyrus – o Developed by Egyptians o Made from a special reed found on the banks of the Nile – better than Mesopotamian clay tablets o Many papyrus were preserved by Egypt’s dry climate – they last today – (UNLIKE Mesopotamian tablets) IV. The New Kingdom Period: 1567 – 1085 BCE o EGYPT’s GOLDEN AGE  Egypt was the most wealthy and influential at this time  They create outside contact with Middle Eastern world  The Hiksos invasions happen right before this period  After the invasion, Egypt felt less safe, this is why they embark on conquests of war – led to conflict with surrounding people  Namely, the Hittites – similar in some ways to Mesopotamian civilizations - centered in Asia Minor – used cuneiform – o During the Ramses II ruling time, the Battle of Kadesh (1274 BCE) occurred - Ramses the II and the Hittites go to battle – turf war over middle land between them – first recorded battle in western civilization a. Egyptian Influences: i. Egypt’s outward looking foreign policy led them to influence Greeks and Hebrews ii. Egyptian influence in Greek Cora statues (stiff faced statues) iii. Hebrews – Egypt plays a big role in the Old Testament - Moses – the curses, splitting the Red Sea b. Akhenaten – 1351-1334 BCE i. Known as Egypt’s Heretic Pharaoh – King Tut’s daddy ii. Stopped worship of Egypt’s traditional gods – made them worship the sun disk – Aten  Oldest and the great wrote during the Archaic Period (800-480 BCE)  There is a theory that Homer was not just one man – like Homer was a title more than a name – this theory argues that the epics were from a group of poets, not just one man  Homer perfectly captured the “Greek Ideals” – The Agonistic Tradition – this may be why he was so popular  Greek society revolved around the idea of competition – Homer encapsulated all the ideas of AGON  In the world that Homer portrays: Agon, Arete, Kleos (fundamental blocks of Greek Competition)  Agon (competition) -  Means competition or struggle  It’s where we get the word agony  This idea permeated all aspects of Greek life  Greeks competed in war, words, art, Olympics (grew from this idea)  Arête (excellence) –  Idea of being good at what you’re doing  Kleos (glory)  Very important to society - The Trojan War o Did it really happen? We don’t know o We doubt Homer as one man, now we decide if his account reflects real events o Classical Greeks say it actually happened – and that all the heroes actually lived at some point o Herodotus – left out mythical aspects of Homer’s account, but claimed the war did happen o Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890) –  Modern era people thought Troy was a myth, this changes  Schliemann wanted to prove that Trojan War happened  Dude digs in Hissarlik (Turkey) – found a burn layer – deduced that there was an ancient city there and it had burned – decides it is site of ancient Troy, where the Trojan war had actually happened – and finds treasure of Bronze Age artifacts  “Priam’s Treasure”  Made him famous over night, his discovery and techniques have lots of criticism now  Schliemann was at the beginning of archeology – didn’t document or plan well – lots of mystery surrounding his technique  Some think he actually found Troy, many remain skeptical  There was a great Bronze Age city at Hissarlik, burned, but it had no direct link to Homer’s Troy  Till this day, there is no consensus - Minoan Civilization (2800-1450 BCE) o First Bronze Age Civilization o Based in Crete o Civilization based on palace complex at Knossos o Society tied to sea – emphasis on Art and Trade – sea traders – they interacted with other cultures in the Mediterranean o 1899 Sir Arthur Evans – excavated Knossos, after King Minos o Culture was wealthy, well organized, food supplies were good, and there was a hint that there was likely a king Minoan Writing o Linear A – Minoan written language  Oldest language found in Crete  Not a Greek Language – It’s Persian / Indo-European  This meant that Minoans were likely Persian, not Greek  Linear A has never been deciphered  There is no Rosetta Stone Equivalent Minoan Religion o Women were important to Minoan civilization o Polytheistic o Main female deity took form of snake goddess (fertility goddess) o Considered the bull to be sacred, associated with male virility – did Minoan bull dance – jumped over a bull’s back Minoan Culture o No walls in the palace o Mostly peaceful society, detached from war o Aristocracy served a political, diplomatic role – not military o Emphasis on art, made pretty frescos and pottery o Minoan Decline  Theory 1: Major natural disaster – volcano erupted, disturbed the way they live (sea) in Thera (sp?)  Theory 2: Island attacked by civilization that grew powerful on mainland Greece – the Mycenaeans (1600-1100 BCE)  Mycenaeans writing found there had something to do with Minoan fall – likely volcano hurt Minoan civilization and the Mycenaeans ended it o Indications of Change  Pottery became more rigid, focused on military  After 1500, men buried with weapons and armor  Military became a focus on Crete o Linear B – Mycenaean writing form –  Earliest known form of Greek Writing  Deciphered in the 1950s  All things imply that Mycenaean interference was to blame for Minoan fall - Mycenaean Civilization (1600-1100 BCE) o Get name from Mycenae (city) o Indo-Europeans who migrated to Greece o First true Greeks o Initially, influenced by Minoan civilization, but they were different, war like – big stone walls, fortified, big, boulders – Cyclopean Masonry o These fortifications were for military protection in mainland Greece o Mycenae wasn’t meant to have a large population like Kenosis o Buildings were less decorated than that of Kenosis o Mycenaean religion –  They believed in the Greek pantheon of the Gods  Led by a King known as a Wanax (warrior king/general)  Agamemnon is a good example of a Wanax  Agamemnon the King of Mycenae –  Warrior culture, courage in battle  Women had a less prominent place because of emphasis on war  Plundered for goods and had extensive trading network o 1200 BCE – The Bronze Age was giving way o Crisis of the 12th Century explanation: o The Sea People  Historian Robert Drews said that the main form of military power was the chariot  Over time, eastern Mediterranean states invested more and more in chariots  Pylos – small Mycenaean city could maintain a large group of chariots o Hebrew Monarchy  A Hebrew Kingdom  Kings must receive authority from god  Widely recognized leader – High Priest Samuel – thought to receive support from Hebrew God – he called upon to pick a King  He chose King Saul (first Hebrew king - mainly a military leader) 1030-1010  He was followed in war, but resisted in other ways  King David (1010-961)  Greatest political leader in Hebrew history  Forced all 12 tribes to accept his rule  He conquered the remaining Canaanite states in Palestine  Made capital at Jerusalem  Work of organizing this state was done by…  King Solomon (961-922)  Did building projects – Solomon’s temple  His main job was to organize the state  Made Israel a strong, civilized state, but angered Hebrews in taxing them to pay for building projects and war  Conservative Element: Policies offended conservative Hebrews – thought that the Hebrews were intermixing with too many locals in the region o Decline  After Solomon’s death, Civil war broke out – people who supported and didn’t  Hebrews became divided into 2 separate things  North and South split  North – Kingdom of Israel (922-722)  South - Kingdom of Judah (922-586)  Divided until 722 – Northern kingdom of Israel was destroyed – 10 tribes in the north were scattered and lost – after the region was known as Sumaria  586 - Neo-Babylonians took over Kingdom of Judah – imprisonment of Hebrews in Babylon known as Babylonian Captivity o Origins of Judaism  Greatest Contribution: Monotheism - they start worshiping one God – hadn’t been seen before – before Monotheism, they had monolotry. worshiped one more so than they others  Early Hebrews were polytheistic, animistic  Hebrew patriarch identified their families with a particular deity – focused on that god  Worshiped that God and he in turn protected them  Just before the Hebrews left the desert and invaded Palestine, the early desert religion of the fathers underwent changes  Changes attributed to Moses  As a result of Moses’ teaching – Yahweh – “He creates” – the Hebrew creator of the universe o National Ethical Covenant  Yahweh was originally a storm god, associated with mountain tops and warfare  Moses emphasized the covenant between the Hebrews and Yahweh “Social/Religious Contract”  Yahweh provided protection and Hebrews identified him as their specific god – this process is known as MONOLATRY – recognition of existence of many gods but with worship only to one deity  Moses’ teachings are different – Hebrews were required to lead ethical lives as it was set down in the Ten Commandments – Moses got from Yahweh on the Mountain Sinai – the tablets that Moses got contained the 10 commandments and moral, ethical laws (a way of life/commandments  Most ancient religions had rules concerned with ceremony and ritual (how to worship god) not how to live your life  This code of law became the code of The Torah – first five books of the Hebrew bible – these laws were written by Moses and carried by Isrealites in their wanderings in the Arc of the Covenant  The Torah was a physical reminder of the contract between the Hebrews and Yahweh  Tabernacle – tent/movable – where arc resided until they built the temple in Jerusalem o The Prophetic Movement  King Solomon – anxious to made Judaism more acceptable in his kingdom – adopted many symbols and rights from Cannanite stuff – Solomon made religion encompass all aspects of life and culture  Led to distinct culture and national character  Because of Solomon and prophets efforts, they kept their identity  Even as a scattered community  There was an important reaction, known as the Prophetic Movement – reaction to keep Jewish faith in more of its basic characteristics – keep it as a close knit society of Hebrews  When kingdom fell to invaders, prophets thought Yahweh was displeased  Prophets kept Jewish communities together, by promising that a Messiah “an anointed one” would come and reestablish the Hebrew dominion over Palestine  The Prophets extended the basic traits of Judaism  Important break – moved toward monotheism  After 550, BCE – Judaism/Hebrews were exclusively Monotheistic  Apocalypse – a messiah would lead forces of good and make an independent Hebrew state  Contribution of Hebrews to history – religious – creation of the first real and ethical form of monotheism – Judaism started as political religion, changed over time  Judaism was intended just for Jews – a particular group  Judaism was the basis on which the two most important religions were build – Christianity and Islam - Assyrians o Biggest bullies on the block o Following crisis of 12th century in near east, there were only small states in the near east  Very scattered and divided in this region o After 900 BCE, a new series of empires emerged – better organized and larger o Semetic group – devotion to principle god – Ashur (a son god) – because of devotion they became known as Assyrians – “worshipers of Ashur” o 850-650 – all lands of MESO under their control  Work of several war like and powerful kings  Namely, Tiglath-Pileser III (744-727 BCE)  Amassed largest extent of the empire - Reasons for Assyrians Success o Character of the people: they loved warfare and conquest o Kingdom located b/t Meso, Asia Minor, Syria, and Palestine o They were threatened on all sides o Precarious environment made warfare a fundamental way of life o Nurtured the idea of warfare – they loved war o Key to success: powerful army, best equipped in the region o First civilization to employ iron for weapons and armor  Their enemies still used Bronze, game Ass an advantage o Developed a new kind of BOW  Recurve Bow – could shoot iron tipped arrows further and harder than ever before  Could do damage from a distance o They were the first near eastern state to employ heavy cavalry into warfare o Despite rapid growth and size, they lasted longer than everyone else o Ability to keep time to the beat of the war chant so the wall of shields did not break  They ran into each other at about 10 mph o Each man’s shield protected himself and the right side of the man next to him o Hoplite comes from the Greek word for shield “hoplon” o Shield was fundamental to Hoplite warfare o City governments had to develop a way to make citizenry happy – expanded participation in Greek governments – played a large part in democratization of Greece o Promoted greater participation of citizenry in government o Since we buy weapons, and train every year, we should have a say in city politics and who we fight every year, that stuff o Wanted the soldiers to be engaged and excited about fighting - Greek Colonization o Limited resources of Greece and ready access of the sea led to the age of Greek colonization o Not enough land and food at home, sponsored expeditions in the Aegean world then to other places. o First, the Ionian Coast (Turkey today) and the Northern Aegean Territory known as Thrace o Then, along the Black Sea coast (important food producing region for Greek mainland o Greeks set up in N. Africa, France, Italy, and Spain – extensive colonization reach o Not like later European colonization  Greek colonies became independent cities – didn’t answer to home cities  Spread Greek culture thought Mediterranean world - Sparta o Heated competition set stage for Greek’s o Most Greek Polis were oligarchy o Sparta located in Southern Peloponnesus – around 730 BCE – they conquered Messenie and enslaved everyone who lived there and made them Helots (Spartan slaves) o B/t 800-600 BCE – Spartans instated Reforms of Lycurgus  To ensure they remained in power over Helots  Part of Reforms – intro of Agoge this was a training regiment where young boys learned to be part of Spartan army  Spartans had dual Kingship  They added the Gerousia – council of elders – 28 men older than 60 plus the 2 kings – proposed legislation which was them approved by the Apella - all male citizens – agreed by banging on shields  Added system of 5 Ephors – men elected annually as check on Spartan kings – judges if kings broke the law – also supervised the Agoge and rejected malformed babies  Most renounced military nu Greece with best Hoplites  They could focus completely on war – made them unique  Their slaves did all the bullshit – they focused on making bad ass Hoplite Warriors  They were hesitant in foreign policy – didn’t want to leave Peloponnesus because they had to watch their slaves – didn’t want to leave them alone o Spartans developed a society where their citizenry had to participate in Warfare o Fought to the death - Athens o Started as an oligarcy headed by the Areopagus – council of aristocrats o In 7th century, Draco gave Athen’s first code of law – his laws were harsh and unforgiving – Draconian word from this o Solon – 594 BCE emerged  First, he reforms citizenry into 4 classes - the Athenian population into 4 groups divided by Wealth  First Class/ Second Class – made of aristocracy – only two that could serve as Archons – (annual leader of the city)  Third Class- made of Hoplite citizenry – could be in the Boule Council – prepared the agenda for the general assembly – the Ecclesia  Fourth Group – The Thetes (poorest citizens) couldn’t hold office but could vote in the general assembly – didn’t own land or fight in the Hoplite  Cancelled all debts in Athens  Didn’t redistribute land  Power remained with aristocracy o After Solon’s reforms they had – Pisistratids (tyrants) led to… o New Reformer – Cleisthenes (508-501 BCE)  Founder of Athenia democracy  Just emerged from a tyranny that followed Solon  He abolished Solon’s wealth class system  Instead, he replaced it with a system of 10 tribes – based on location  Each tribe had a section of the city, countryside and the coast  New system placed all power in Athenian Assembly – the Ecclesia  With his reforms, they made the first democracy in western civilization – laws passed by citizen majority  Athenian democracy had a more direct involvement in their democracy o Practice of ostracism – any citizen could be banished from Athens for 10 years after a successful vote – they would have assembly meet, scratch names on the pottery – whoever got the most votes got ousted to avoid tyranny - Persia o 1st Classical Empire o 530-330 BCE o Largest empire to date – lasted more than 2 centuries o “King of Kings” – Persian king was above all others o Persians are portrayed as effeminate, weak  Much of what we know of Persians comes from the Greeks (their bitter enemies) – biased source o Rise of Persia  Cyrus the Greek 576-530 BCE  Founded the Acheamenid Dynasty (Persian Dynasty)  Led campaigns against neighboring people  Gained control of much of the Middle East – defeats the Medes (Modern day Iran) and got Lydia- Asia Minor (Turkey)- then defeated Babylon  Released the Jews from Babylonian captivity  Let them return to Palestine and rebuild their temple  For his generosity, Cyrus is refered to as the Hand of God in the Hebrew bible  He died fighting the Scythians  His son, Cambyses became the next Persian king – added Egypt in 525 BCE  Consolidation of An Empire  Darius 1 (550-468 BCE)  Expanded more on Persian territory  Tried to add Greece – starts war with the Greeks  His greatest achievements were internal – beautiful Persian capital at PERSEPOLIS  Built emperial highway for Persian empire – facilitated the movement of troops, taxes and information (big advantage) o Stretched from June 17, 2014 300: The Hoplite Formation (They broke formation – individual Leonidas badass was bad – individual heroism looked down upon) The Graeco-Persian Wars and the Rise of Athens - Introduction to Classical Greece o Archaic Period saw restoration of order and culture in Greece… laid the groundwork for o The Classical Age (500-323 BCE)  The Greatest period in Greek history  Greece reached greatest achievements here – Athens was crucial  Began and ended with war  Beginning – Greeks began to unify because of a powerful external enemy – Persia  Ionian Revolt first brought the Greeks to the attention of Darius I (550-486 BCE)  490 Darius I launches an invasion fleet – Battle of Marathon (490 BCE) – Darius appoints a general to lead this – this Persian fleet landed at Marathon  Many of the Greek city-states other than Athens decided that Persia was too big to fight  Sparta couldn’t go on the warpath because of a Religious festival  Athenians were alone against the Persians - The Graeco-Persian Wars o 1st Graeco Persian War (492-490 BCE)  At the Battle of Marathon, the Athenians were outnumbered 2:1  Athenians had advantage of terrain  Miltiades (550-489 BCE) – Athenian General – convinced them to attack Persians while they had the advantage – it worked – Herodotus said the Athenians only lost 100 something, Persians lost 6K  The Athenians sent a runner to Athens to inform them of their victory – Pheidippides, a runner, ran 26 miles, reported the news and keels over dead  This is why marathons are 26 miles  Persians didn’t give up right away – what was left of them boarded their ships and tried a second amphibious landing – when Athenians found out – they prevented the Persians from doing this – Persians sailed home o The Aftermath of the First Graeco-Persian War  The Athenians had an equipment and operational advantage  Some think the Persians had not unloaded their horses when they were attacked  Some think its because Athenians were fighting for their home  25,000 wasn’t large enough to subjugate Greece  Marathon was a defining moment for the Athenians  From Athenian perspective, it was a pivotal moment to fight off an oppressive and evil invader (never mind that they burned Sardus first)  Marathon was an Athenian badge of honor – they rubbed it in the faces of other Greeks – including Spartans  Marathonomachoi - men who fought at Marathon called this  Marathon became a famous day  Aeschylus – fought at Marathon as a young man, then became a famous playwright – when he made a big thing he never mentioned his plays, he just wrote about fighting at Marathon  Also wrote the Orestia Trilogy o 2nd Graeco-Persian War (480-479 BCE)  For Darius, Marathon was a small set back  The loss to Athens was embarrassing though  So, to avenge the defeat – Darius had to solve a major revolt in Egypt first – luckily for the Greeks, bu the time that ended, Darius was dead  Darius’ son – Xerxes (519-465 BCE)  Decided to pick up where daddy left off  480 BCE – he attacks Greece – puts all effort here  This army had about 2.5 million men from across the Persian empire – exaggeration – more like 200-250,000 men – largest army the world had seen to this point  Xerxes supplied the army by a fleet going around the coast  To make this possible, engineers were sent ahead of the army – they built a boat bridge (pontoon bridge) at Hellespont and Mount Athos – big engineering feats – Herodotus says that Xerxes showed his dominance over the gods – hubris of Xerxes  Xerxes marched largely unopposed – the Greeks made the Hellenic League – to fight off the invasion of Xerxes – Athens Sparta and other city states – Sparta was placed in charge of the league o Spartan Glory  Spartan King – Leonidas (489-480 BCE)  Decided to make his stand against the Persians at the Battle of Thermopylae – The Hot Gates – (480 BCE)  Thermopylae in 480 BCE made a place to make a bottleneck – Idea: hold off Persians long enough to let Athenians meet them and destroy the Persian fleet - If the Persian fleet was destroyed, Xerxes couldn’t supply the Army and they would have to return home  Artemision – place Greeks hoped to Destroy Persian fleet o Battle of Thermopylae  3,000 Greeks took up position here  For three days, they prevented Persians from getting through  On the second day, Ephialtes – a Greek trader showed the Persians a goat path, they flank them  Leonidas sent all but 1,400 men home – 300 of which were the Spartans  Became the Athenian Marathon – even though it was a loss  Themistocles (524-459 BCE)  Athenian Greek General – fought Persians to a stalemate – naval attack doesn’t work  Nothing stopping the Persians from reaching Athens by land o Athens and Its Wooden Walls  What to do next……  Some Athenian leaders pointed to an oracle at Delphi  This oracle had said that the Athenians would be safe behind their wooden walls  That meaning was up to interpretation: o Walls of Athenian Acropolis o But, Themistocles convinced them that these were Athenian ships  Battle of Salamis (480 BCE)  When Persians get to Athens, they burn it to the ground  The Greek fleet was cornered  Outnumbered, the Athenians squeezed the Persians into a small area  At Salamis, the Greeks had a tactical and equipment advantage o The Trireme – Greek warship - had a bronze beak, for ramming – Athenian rowers could out maneuver the bulky Persian ships o Huge naval Greek victory  The End of the War  Xerxes returns to Persia  Citystates that didn’t join were pressured to join through force – Greeks attacking Greece  454 BCE – moved HQ from Delos to Athens  Said it would be more secure there  Part of money collected from Allies should be paid to Athens  League ceased to be an alliance – became an Athenian Empire – when they moved treasury  Allies became client states  Other Greek states became nervous, they watched Athens grow and grow and got nervous –  Major war on the horizon over control of Aegean world  Signals decline of classical age greece June, 18 2014 Athens and Spartan Wife Swap The Peloponnesian War - Thucydides (460-395 BCE) o An Athenian statesman and writer o Famous for writing account of the war after his exile in 424 o Hellenica in his Xenophon – picks up where he leaves off o Scientific History and political Realism o May have been an atheist o Unique from Herodotus in his concern for the truth – he conducted research and interviews – an imperialist – concerned with power relations between states o He had great admiration for Pericles o Although sometimes he critizes Athens, he is a supporter of Athenian democracy o Reliable as a historian…. Generally o Told of learned the exact use of power wisely or losing it willfully - Origins and Conquences of the War o Allies of the war – Spartans were scared of Hellot rebellions – Major Hellot rebellion in 465 o Sparta sent home Athenian aide - Made bad blood – o Pro Spartan regime under Peloponnesus – Athens allied itself with Argos o Athens and Sparta at odds – created instability in greek world o Athenian subjugation of island of Samos ended any Naval threat to Athens o Athens gains more wealth and timber to build a bigger fleet o Growing success of Athens became a threat to Sparta o Sparta couldn’t defeat Athens navy, they didn’t have a navy  Sparta needed help o 2 Key External Factors to defeating Athens:  Rebellion of Athens Allies  Persian Support o This brought an end to the Classical world – Athens defeat was decisive - knocks Greece out of Classical age o Gave way to oligarcy after the war o Violence broke down bonds of Greek Society – greek honor in war evaporated – CONSEQUENCES – social and religious norms of the greeks are abandoned in order to win the war - War on the Horizon o 433 Athens aligns with Corinth o Problem: Corinth was an ally of Sparta o Athens introd first ever trade embargo in Megora – made trade embargo as punishment for Aiding o Megarian Decree – o Spartain fear of Athenian power was the reason for the start of the war o Spartans main motives: fear and self interest, honor o Both couldn’t back down without fucking with power balance in Greece o Nether wanted an all out war – but they didn’t want to look bad in international community in Greece o Athens wanted to pressure Sparta to surrender – evry year they would march into Attica o Not traditionally Greek to avoid war – Athenians actively AVOIDED it o By remaining passive, Athens had little means to win the war – no way for Athens navy to hurt Sparta in the peloponeasus  Not all Athenians supported Pericles strategy o Spartan plan – pressure every year on Attica – - The War o First year of the war was 431 – mostly inconclusive o Athens suffered considerable financial losses o Pericles Funeral Oration 431 BCE – Pericles praised Athenians for sacrificing their lives – live up to the example to those that had died – rallying cry o However, in 430 – Athens loses somewhere – on top of that, a plague breaks out – Pericles and thousands die in 430] o Athens loses greatest leader o Peace, Aggressive War, Moderate Party  Aggressive War Party – under Cleon win o Naupactus – the naval defeat of the Spartans -navy wiped out here o War to this point was a costly stalemate o 428/427 – City of Mytilene on the island of Lesbos rebel against Athens - Athenians put down revolt – Athenians confiscate all land – prime example of Athenian policy become desperate o Stasis - political feuding in Greek  Swept through Greek states – political atrocities become increasingly common o By 426 – Sparta opens a new front in central Greece o Athens opens fort Pylos in the Peloponnesus - Spartans in a Pinch o Athenians trap 420 Spartans – Battle of Sphacteria - Athenian General Demosthenes – Sparta offers peace terms - A says no – o 120 elite Spartan warriors surrender- Spartiate o Shocking victory for the Athenians o Never did Spartan elite surrender before – big blow to Spartan prestige o Athens had clear advantage in the war – shift in Athenian policy - New Strategies o 424 423 Athenians abandon Pericles strategy (don’t get involved in major bsttles)  This led to disaster o Big defeats in Megora and Delium – squander opportunities – lose momentum o Spartan general – Brasidas (424-422) Attack Athens from the North – fuck up their grain supply – choke Athens from food supply  Captured Amphipolis  Athenian historian from earlier was in charge here, led to his exile o Kept campaigning in the North – Cleon (Athenian aggressive war party general) died fighting in the same battle – two big about o Possible peace? - Peace of Nicias (421-414 BCE) o War had been going on for 10 years – both sides approached peace talked o Nicias (470-413) –  Leader of peace party in Athens  Comes to power in 432  Everything goes back to pre-war conditions – Athens northern cities and elite Spartan warriors return  Failed to accomplish either of major goals  Peace failed to receive other city state support  Spartans re-nig and don’t give shit back  Corrinth, Megorah, and Thebes (Sparta’s allies) don’t agree to peace  This was a sham –  Lysanders’s command expired and he was replaced by Callicratidas  At the battle of Arginusae – off coast of Asia Minor – Spartan navy (more experienced) attacks Athenian fleet - Athens wins – 77 Spartans sunk – lost 25 – didn’t capitalize – Athenians didn’t rescue Athenian men in the water or bury their dead – 8 generals of Athenian fleet were executed for this decision  This virtually destroyed the Athenian officer core o Sparta ends the War  Lycander was reinstated – they lost the battle – we better go back  Lycander goes back to campaigning in the Hellespont  Took advantage of poor Athenian leadership and destroyed Athenian fleet except for 10 ships at the Battle of Aegospotami(405 BCE) – Athenian fleet destroyed once and for all  Athens can not continue the war without a fleet  Lycander has 3000 captured Athenians executed after the battle  After this defeat – most of Athens allies surrender  March 404 –Athens surrenders  Athens loses walls, navy, empire and democracy  Lycander institutes the “Thirty Tyrants” – replaces Athenian empire with Spartan empire - Aftermath of the War and the Final Decline of Greece o The Spartans won o Hugely destructive o Dominant power in all of Greece o Sparta was exhausted, Athens still wasn’t crushed o Within a year of Athens surrender, the Athenian democracy was rebuilt – within a decade the fleet was rebuilt o The other city states wanted to get rid of Athens, but didn’t want Spartans to take over o 395-287 Corinthian War -resistance to Spartan rule  Real winner of the war was the city of Thebes (in central Greece)  They avoided most of the bloodshed of the Peloponeasun war  Ball of Leuctra (371 BCE) – Sparta crushed – Thebes becomes dominant at this point o Legacy of Peloponnesus : destruction of classical Greece June 19, 2014 BONUS Opportunity #1: Band Name: Sacred Blood (from Greece) Song Title: “Ride through the Achaemenid Empire” Subject Matter: Alexander the Great’s Conquest of Persia The Age of Alexander the Great - The Rise of Macedon o The Empire of Alexander (325-323 BCE) o Macedonia was previously…… o Previously fractured, phillips’s reforms o King Phillip (359-336 BCE)  Macedonia was previously unimportant – in 359 Phillip II came into power in Macedon  The kingdom was in disorder at that time – military wasn’t strong and people weren’t united behind the crown  Phillip reformed the military – implemented a new Macedonian Phalanx (adapted from Greek phalanx) -12 deep (not 8) and every man carried an 18 foot pike called a Sarissa – less body armor, but the pike compensates for that – tech advantage  Made a highly organized army – used it to defeat the enemies of Macedonia  Phillip capitalized on strengths of his land – gold mines and timber resources – great militarily – and he knew when not to right – he excelled at diplomacy – kept his enemies divided – he fought them one at a time  Phillip used polygamy – (political marriages) to cement his alliances  2 factors Phillip extended his way over Greece:  1. A few Greek cities controlled Delphi – 346 BCE Third Sacred War -Phillip took control of all of Thessaly o He became the controller of Delphi  2. Phillip could take control of Greece because his opposition was severely divided o Demosthenes (384-322 BCE)  Athenian statesman  Called Phillip a barbarian  Against the idea of Phillip taking control  Greeks could stop fighting each other and look outwardly  Someone liked the idea of Phillip being in charge – name??? o Battle of Chaeronea (338 BCE)  Phillip defeats the combined forces of Thebes and Athens  Total domination of all of Southern Greece for Phillip  To control the Greek city states, Phillip makes the League of Corinth  He is the leader of this league  Then he plans an invasion on Asia - to avenge the Persian invasions of Greece – they were still pissed about that  On eve of invasion – in 336 BCE Phillip was assassinated under mysterious circumstances  Throne passed to Alexander III (Phil’s son) o Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE)  During his youth, parents educated him  Aristotle was his tutor  He had military ambition and experience for 20 years old  At the battle of Chaeronea – he was in charge of the cavalry  After he became king, he campaigned to secure Macedonia’s northern frontier  The League of Corinth rebels – Alexander est. his dominance by taking Thebes in 335  By 334, Alex is ready to invade Asia – his continued success led him further and further east  The Persians had gone through imperial succession problems since Xerxes – MADE them vulnerable to outside attack o THE INVASION OF ASIA  In May 334, after crossing into Asia Minor – Alexander has the Battle of the Granicus River (334 BCE) – even sided, but Alexander is victorious – first war in Asia for Alexander – followed by conquest of Asia Minor  Alexander almost died – he was wounded many times over the next 10 years o Alexander Defeats the Persian King o Darius III  336-330 BCE  Went west with 100,000 men to Face Alexander  Battle of Issus (333) – Alexander wins -Persians lose 20,000 men  After this victory, Alex takes Syria, Israel and Egypt – he forms Alexandria in Egypt  He was pronounced the Son of Zeus at Egypt too – living god  King Darius fled to Mesopotamia – he left his family  331 – Alex returns from Egypt and marches to MESO  The army was massive that he faced – 100,000 men o Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE)  In a brilliant tactical move  They become Macedonian dynasty to succeed Phillip and alexander  Macedonians come into battle with Rome – The battle of Pydna in 168 ends them – Rome wins o The Seleucids  Based on wealth of Syria and meso  Seleucus I (305-281 BCE) – first king  They were huge, but tough to control  The Nomadic Parthians came to dominate all eastern lands here  Romans took the West  The Romans ended this at 63 BCE o The Ptolemaic Kingdom  Founded by Ptolemy I (303-285 BCE)  Former friend of Alex  Alexandria was the capital  Longest lasting successor state  Crippled by dynastic warfare  Cleopatra VII (69-30 BCE) Mascedonian –  Kingdom ended at hands of Romans  Sept 31 BCE - Octavian beat Marc Antony and Cleo at Battle of Actium  Successor states of Alexander were no more - Alexander’s Legacy o Tough, smart and determined o Brilliant militarily, led by example o His conquests were unmatched in ancient world o He was too emotional and drank too much – he died at 32 o Greatest characteristic: generalship o Conquest of Asia couldn’t have been done without work of Phillip II (he unified Greece) o Persians weren’t cruel and weak, they were gentle masters – ultimately, Alex took advantage of Poor Persian leadership under Darius III o Alex’s army was better trained, equipped, than Persia – they had the advantage over Persians o The Greek Mercenaries were the toughest tot fight o Great warrior o Left local cultures alone – he was respectful of religions o Alex was willing to leave autonomy to conquered places as long as you were willing to pay taxes and fall in line o Alex was open to foreign cultures o He adapted his ruling style to fit where he was o Not all of Alex’s men shared his openness to foreign cultures – unpopular among Macedonian soldiers o He wanted to unify the world he had created o Thus, another way he offended Macedonian soldiers, he decided to incorporate Persians into his aristocracy and gave them important o Wanted a unified ruling elite – he made many of his men marry Persian women – polygamy was acceptable o The Graeco-Mascedonians didn’t like his openness to eastern customs, culture and resented him for making them marry Persian women o They didn’t like mixing Greek and Persian o Few shared the vision of unity – followed by a series of violent wars - The Spread of Greek Culture o Due to Alexander’s conquering – these places flourished economically o The successor kings kept this going – encouraged Greeks to immigrate to these new cities o These cities had a distinctively Greek layout o Koine Greek – common tongue of ancient Greek o Eastern and Western religions mixed, o Religious innovation – the introduction of the Ruler cult (????) – many Greeks didn’t want to treat Alex like a god when he lived, but after his death, he was generally worshiped as a god o Large Jewish community formed in Alexandria – The Septuagint – Greek translation of Hebrew Bible o Emergence of Christianity - new testament was written in Greek – without Hellenization of the east, its unlikely that Christ and his new religion would have spread out of Judaea o Christians today have Alex to thank o Persian kings made Hellenistic tombs for themselves - The New Hellenistic World o New kind of Greek culture o The Greek cities, new and old – kept town councils, citizen assemblies o Blend of new eastern and traditional Greek o Often cities could run their own internal affairs with classical Greek institutions – technically subordinate to king – under a monarchy – they got to live under a quazi democratic world o Hellenistic art flourished and Greek became the language of education and science o Most famous library – in Alexandria – they collected famous texts (Homer, Plato, Aristotle) – preserving the great works of classical Greece o Caesar to Napoleon have emulated Alexander o Expanded horizons of Greek world o Took scholars along to document o His mark on the world is still present, and his lessons in Afghanistan were relevant then and today June 20, 2014 Culture and Thought in the Greek World - Greek Theatre o How the Greeks Thought - 3 Basic Traits:  1. Humanism – concept for man and his problems, concern for these problems  From the beginning, Greeks were always more concerned with man   2. Rationalism – belief we can learn the truth through reason and logical argument  Greeks believed they could explain the universe by using logic  3. Idealism – what we can reason out in our minds is more real than what we can see around us – thinking out of the box of the physical world o Most Greeks believed they could understand natural scientific phenomena by arguing rather than observing o The Polis was a perfect guide for civilization – in some areas the rules of life were uncertain – o 5th Century BCE – Tragic Drama developed – Greek Tragedy  Tragic plays were part of the religious festivals of Athens  Financed and supervised by the government – Playwrights served the city by observing fate and human life – FATE was a main idea tackled in dramatic theatre  Plots of most tragedies were taken from myth  The earliest playwrights took positions that most Athenians would have shared o Early writers were Aeschylus (524-456) and Sophocles (494-406)  Lead character is usually a hero from a myth  He forgets that there are rules that govern human life  He commits hubris – extreme pride  He does something a human shouldn’t do and is punished for his actions  Greeks have a different idea about sin – to them – a man committed hubris when a man tried to do something a man could not do (avoid fate) o Late 5th century – Euripides (480-406) – challenged ideas  Lived in time of Pelloponeasun War  The Athenian populis and army were doing unwise things o Philosophy Changes in the Hellenistic World  Classical age ideas continued into Hellenistic period  Got to asia and north Africa  Hellenistic civilization rapidly became Greek – Smart Greeks were the teachers and scholars  Until the 4th century, Greek philosophers didn’t write for money  Thales – the first philosopher was a merchant – not a professional field at his time  E and Urip – wealthy land owners, Socrates – was a wealthy stone mason  This began to change with the Sophists, they taught for money – by late 4th century – philosophers began to teach for a living  In the Hellenistic period, pro scholars moved to where there was a demand for their work – they went where the money was  Many pro intellectuals were attracted to new Hellenistic cities in the near East – Greeks were encouraged to migrate here – they built schools there to teach people Greek shit  Kings would pay philosophers and writers to work there – money attracts the best scholars to educate their people and the royal family - Hellenistic Education o Schools were the center of intellectual activity o Influence on rhetoric and philosophy o 2 types of Education:  Schools of Rhetoric/Speech Making  Designed to teach people how to be political leaders  Most wealthy men wanted to do this  Every large city had a school of rhetoric  Their goals and methods were developed in the 4th century – by Isocrates (436-338) -thought that learning to speak and write intellectually was necessary for everyone  Thought good public speakers needed to know more than just rhetoric – literature, math, science, history and philosophy (liberal arts)  Philosophy  Included the study of lit, natural science and social science, philosophy  Mainly for professional intellectuals  First ones founded in Athens by Plato and Aristotle  Many more were established in the Near East  Most famous – set up by Ptolemy I in Alexandria – dedicated to the muses (goddesses of learning) – maned the Museum of Alexandria – based on the ideas of Aristotle  In addition to teaching, scholars at the museum interpreted info about literature and natural phenomenon  To assist them, Ptolemy I built the largest library of the time – idea of roots of scientific thought through observation  Like a modern day university-closest the ancient world got  At it’s height – 700,000 books – this collection made the museum an attractive place for scholars to go and study o Euclid – creator of modern geometry o Archimedes – established the value of pie o Eratosthenes – calculates how big the world is using shadows  Many things we know today came from scholars who studied here - Hellenistic Philosophy o Important innovations happened during the Hellenistic period o Philosophical inquiry into ethics – the exploration of proper behavior  This becomes the cool thing to study o In classical Greece, behavior was dictated by the Polis o There was no reason to spend time discussing ethics, it was determined by your city state o 5th Century – Socrates decided that right conduct might not be the same as the idea the community has for right behavior o Ethical behavior was emphasized as something internal, not external – ethics comes from within was the new idea for philosophers in the Hellenistic period o If it’s all coming from within us, we need to think about what the guides should be o Stoicism – new Hellenistic philosophical idea – founder Zeno of Citium – taught the universe was organized along a logical, reasonable and divine plan (logos)- for stoics there were no accidents in life – every person should try to live in harmony with logos  To do so, one must determine what the most reasonable behavior might be  Argued that we need to avoid emotional activities, so that we wont be tempted to go away from the logical/duty to your family – don’t go from the contemplation of logos, the divine plan for yourself  Seriousness, focus, determination and duty – stress on public service – ROMANS LOVED THIS IDEA – duty to state/family, seriousness o Epicureanism – second school of thought  Epicurus of Athens founded this  Drastically opposed to the ideas of Stoicism – polar opposites  Believed everything was the result of accident – no divine plan – some rules in nature, but these rules developed over time with no real purpose  Everything was temporary – men should make the best of their lives in the face of chaos  Men should pursue a life of avoidance of pain – pleasure was an absence of pain – pleasure came from the senses that would ultimately end in pain – ESCAPING THE REAL WORLD  Retreat from civic and family duty, don’t involve yourself in pain - Hellenistic Culture and Religion o The cultural advances of the Hellenistic world were also significant o There was a shift from the classic Greek Polis o Cosmopolis (“cosmopolitan”) – shift defined how Greeks defined their loyalties – people traveled more in Hellenistic world – expansive movement o A new objective for culture developed at this time – cosmopolitan  Cosmos = the universe  Polis = the city  So, cosmopolitan means universal city – encompasses how Hellenistic world was changing o No one had to be tied to one particular city – the roots of the cosmopolitan Hellenistic world were the numerous cities founded by Alexander the Great – Alexandria in Egypt was the most famous, and the first one – he named everything Alexandria something o Cities became different from Greek polis – citizens, scholars, merchants could create a new life and identity for themselves - Evolution of Greek Religion o As Greek culture expanded, it came into contact with numerous religious cults o The Greeks were generally tolerant of other religions – these religions were allowed to continue carrying on – over time, Greeks began to blend elements of these religions into their owns o Mystery Religions AKA Mystery Cults  Benefits:  Emotional Religions Experience  Possibility of life after death  People joined by secret initiation  Focused on savior god – died and risen from the dead  Best example – Cult of Isis – Egyptian goddess Isis – offered eternal life after death to members  Many cults became popular in Roman World – innovations of mystery cults – savior worship, rising from the dead, and life after death contributed to later religions o The most important trend – greater quality for the citizens – more participation by citizens o At first – organized as an aristocracy – only members of noble families could hold important offices – Patricians (upper crust aristocrats - blue blood – important people) o Other citizens could vote in the general assembly – they were called Plebeians – gradually the Patricians lost their privileged position – all citizens came to have the same political rights o All adult male citizens sitting in the citizen assembly to make important decisions – no women allowed o Roman Citizen body was called the Populus o What made the Romans unique, they gave citizenship to their defeated enemies (uncommon in ancient world o By 250 BCE, there were around 200,000 Roman Citizens (4 to 5 times Athens size at its height o Power of populous was somewhat limited – could only vote yes or no o The magistrates – are the ones who propose things to the populous - Roman Republican Government: Aspects of Monarchy*** o NOT A DEMOCRACY – a mix of democracy, oligarchy and monarchy o 3 political bodies: 1. Citizen Assembly – known as Centuriate Assembly – Roman assembly – made of citizens who were also serving as soldiers – the men sitting didn’t have an equal vote – voted by centuries (not per person – basically like group vote)  60 Yes – 40 No – the century votes Yes  Formed based on how much the man could contribute to the army – that means how much money someone had  The richest class provided 80 infantry and 18 cavalry  Below them – provided 40 centuries  6 classes in total – 6th were poorest men of rome – they provided 1 century (poor votes count for less)  Richest people had 98 votes, poowest class only gets 1 vote  Executive power rested in the power of the Consuls – head of the Roman state – the Centuriate Assembly voted for one yearly – In the Consulship of Nicholas Overtoom (how they refered to their years) – they were chief admin officers (peace) – army commanders (war time)  When at war, Consuls could act independently – at home they had to act together and agree on any action that effected the state – power limited by making term only one year -aspect of monarchy within the roman system  Uncommon to be voted into this more than once 2. Aristocracy of Rome served in a Senate – from word for senates (old men) – the oligarcy part  The senate was made of the great men of rom – self perpetuating body  The officers, called Censors, chose the body -one could be a senator only after holding a major political office – all men in the senate represented the 4 values, and has served the state in some form or fashion  Main role: advise the consuls in running the government  The Gov’t with the senate – senate was an advisory body to the consuls who then send the votes to the assembly –  In charge of - the Treasury, all Crimes (judicial importance), and all affairs outside of Italy (became important over time)  Senate – the oligarchy aspect  Consuls – monarchy aspect o 3. Democracy –  The Struggle of the Orders – how the plebs gained more rights within the roman system  Early Rome was like an early Greek Polis – they had Patricians (full political rights at first – made laws to preserve their wealth and power) – hereditary decides  The Plebeians believed that they were oppressed – they organized to do something about this – in 471 BCE -they form the Plebeian Council – to represent the interests of them  Chose 10 men – Tribunes of the Plebs -to represent the Plebeans – job: speak to the patricians about matters that concern the Plebs (voice concerns) – they could also pass resolutions (Plebiscites)(mass vote on something spontaneous  Major Steps OF THE STRUGGLE OF ORDERS:  1. 350 – The Citizen Assembly codified laws, known as the 12 tables – all free citizens of Rome had rights as well as duties – the Plebs can now block things they think will hurt them  2. 366 – first ever Pleb was elected consul – from that point on, it was customary for one consul every year to be a Pleb  3. 287 – Assembly votes that Plebiscites had the force of law (END OF THE STRUGGLE OF ORDERS)  Tribune of the Plebs – only Plebs could be this - Patricians had no access  All the tribunes had to agree before it could become a law – if only one tribune objected – he could prevent it by saying VETO (there are only 10 tribunes) – they get the veto power with this – any aspect of law - Roman Social Conventions o The Family  Roman Social Conventions created Res Publica (the way of the people)  Core unit of Roman society – familia – (????)  Farmed one track of land together – the eldest male was called the Pater Familias – enormous power – only one with legal rights over all wealth and property within the family  He had the right to sell them, exile them, kill them (every member of his family)  Powerful statesmen and generals had to obey their pater familias  Also decided who sons and daughters would marry  Sons gave him every cent they earned – he collected all wealth then distributed it as he saw fit  He could control babies in the family too – decided if they would be exposed  The idea: if your dad lives to be 100, it sucks for you  Wife of Pater Familias – the Mater Familias – pater couldn’t kill or sell his wife in this system – gives her a heightened status  Great deal of influence and power within her own right  You really had to respect your family  When Pater died, the sons went out and formed their own familiae (plural)  That’s how roman families work – top down control by main eldest male relative  Extended family network called – gens – clan or family network – supported each other in social and political affairs o Working Relations  The second most important relationship network was the Patron/ Client Relationship (patrocenium)  Hinged on an agreement between 2 individuals to support one another – unequal partnership – inferior = client , superior = patron  Patron could give client money to help, help political career  Client promised to visit his Patron every single day, followed Patron’s lead in all matters (Patron gains a posy)  Generally, this was a moral obligation – not bound by law – over time, traditions made these relationships firm, even hereditary  These relationships spread across the Roman World  A client to one man, may be a patron to others  The number of clients one had was a mark of your importance – the most clients = the most authority/prestige  Even though the Romans fight someone, they were willing to invite them to become allies after beating them  Rome could protect people – so people wanted to ally with them  The Roman system of the alliance was different than the Greek world – more stable and mutually beneficial – they treated their allies really well in Romans – didn’t interfere with government of allied states – treated allies well – careful not to offend them and lose their military support  Moreover, Roman allies were covered by religious law – thought the gods would disapprove if they didn’t adhere to treaties  Gave allied states people Roman citizenship – Athens NEVER did this (Athens was a closed society – Rome was OPEN)  In Rome, a small number of families monopolized power positions – dominated most offices of the state – they could afford to give out citizenship without threatening their power position  Roman citizenship was valuable to the allies – because it allowed them to trade with and intermarry with Roman Families  All Romans required of Italian allies was that they support the Roman army in war and provide troops – the Romans got men, the Allies got protection – worked well for both o Rome Defeats It’s Neighbors  From 340-290 Rome fought against hill tribes in nearby cities in central Italy  Then they fought the Samnite Tribes – 3 nasty wars for control of central Italy – roman expansion in Italy was a response to outside threats  When romans subdued an enemy, they made the people citizens – let conquered people blend with roman society  There were now roman settlements far from Rome, they required protection – harder and harder for these new places to be protected  The conquest of central Italy brought romans into contact with Greek colonies – because of this conflict, the Greek city states reached out for friends to help with Roman aggression o The Pyrrhic War  King Pyrrhus of Epirus (318-272 BCE)  Epirus was a small country, he saw an opportunity to extend his power to Greece and Sicily  280 BCE – he crosses Adriatic sea to help Greeks in Italy – defeats Roman army 2 times inn southern Italy – lost many men  “Pyrrhic Victory” – winning battles, costly, not necessarily good for you – negates any benefits  Pyrrhus marches on gates of Rome – the Romans refuse to surrender – without proper siege equipment – he goes to Sicily – when he returns to Italy a few years later, he was defeated and forced to abandon Italy in 275 BCE  By 267 – the Romans conquer all the Greek city states in Italy o Enemies to the North  The Gauls – collection of Celtic tribes  Northern Italy tribes  Sacked the city of Rome in 390 – big threat to the north  Romans looked to push them back into northern Italy – Romans eventually subdue and kick their asses in 264 – complete control of the Italian Peninsula (Gauls have Northern Italy) o Roman Motivations for War  Roman expansion wasn’t the result of grand strategy – campaigns were sporadic/yearly – STATE SECURITY and POWER – primary objectives  The Plebs voted for war because they benefitted directly from war  When Romans conquered a territory, they normally took 1/3 of conquered land and gave it back to the pool of the Plebs  Gave people an opportunity to feed themselves  The Patricians were eager for war too – they gained land, loot and slaves too – more importantly, they gained glory and furthered their political careers - Military Reform o Rome was willing to evolve militarily – open to outside cultures o Initially, Romans fought in Hoplite formations o Fighting like this wasn’t working against the hill tribes o Switch to the Manipular Legion – basic military unit of the army – used in mid republic – three tiers - Maniples  Camillus instituted this reform – likely a slow process of trial and error  Eventually, modified and incorporated into the Cohort Legion o The Republican legion was broken into 3 ranks, each rank had 10 Maniples (1 legion was 30 maniples) –  Hastati, - first line of defense  principes  triarri – last line of defense o Each Maniple had 2 centuries – each commanded by a centurian – known as a Prior and the Posterior o The most senior centurion was called the primus pilus – “First Spear” o Suited best for straight forward attacks o Pila – throwing spears o Adopted chain mill from the Gauls - stabbing sword, short (gladius) – from the Spanish - Roman Success in Italy o Although Romans took land, they were liberal in giving citizenship to new subjects o Towns nearest rome received full Roman citizenship – could vote in the Roman Assembly – o all other cities could marry, trade with, and offered guaranteed protection from Romans, but you couldn’t vote – pay taxes, offer up men for the army o The conquered cities could keep their old governments and participate in them - Carthage and Rome o Although Romans had unified all of Italy o These were the new, major threat o Sicily was being conquered by Carthage, founded as a Phoenician colony o Grew into a powerful naval empire o They emphasized their Navy o City of traders, ruled by a council of merchant princes – highly civilized – literate and scientifically advanced – used navy to build Western Mediterranean empire – growing ambitions meant that Rome and Carthage were on a collision course – o Punic Wars – Rome’s first big struggle, had they lost, western civ would be way different – important turning point in history  1 st Punic War (264-241) –  264 BCE in Sicily – Group of Italian mercenaries (mamertines) had seized Sicily – Stracuse got pissed– they declared war on them and asked Rome and Carthage to add aide  Romans sent help immediately to Sicily –makes Carthanigeans angry – war breaks out  They had to learn to fight one another – Rome had to develop a navy (slow process) – the Romans had little know how about naval tactics and seamenship – they make one on the fly  To Compensate, Romans make a boarding ram known as the Corvus “crow” – they use a large ram with a hook to get onto enemy ships to fight hand on hand  Hamilcar Barca (275-228BCE )– commander of Carthagen forces in Sicily – surrendered the Island of Sicily to Rome – tactical flexibility, determination and man power led to Roman victory  After the Battle of Zama - Rome is now the chief power of the western Mediterranean, turns its sights to the East o After Zama: Rome and the East  Hannibal made an alliance with the King of Macedonia, Philip V (238-179 BCE) – with Defeat of Carthage in 202, they see the need to punish Phillip  At 197 The Battle of Cynocephalea – Romans beat Phillip, fine him, tell him to leave Rome alone – don’t take land from Phillip – he made an aggressive alliance so he needed to be punished o Rome Defeats Another Threat  Meanwhile, Hannibal had escaped Carthage – he goes to The Seleucid Kingdom – convinces King Antiochus the Great (222- 187 BCE) that the Romans are tired of war – Antiochus was a great military leader –he saw an opportunity to take over Greece with Mascedonia out of the way – in 192 – he invaded Greece, Rome forces him to retreat  At the Battle of Magnesia (190) Antiochus was defeated – Hannibal kills himself to avoid Roman prosecution  Antiochu’ defeat forces him to sign the Treaty of Apamea – abandon all lands in modern day Turkey and pay a huge fine  After this defeat, there is no one to compete with Romans in the Mediterranean world – dominant power in the Mediterranean  Romans didn’t annex any defeated states – they just fined them - acquisition of Spain from Carthage was the only land gain  Rome changed as a result of these wars, this success changed roman society – not necessarily for the better - Polybius (200-118) o Major source for shit we talk about today o Greek statesman and historian, for 17 years he was a Greek politician – a war prisoner to the Romans, he came to possess a nice position in Rome o While in Rome, he became concerned with how they were recording their history o Rise of Rome to Mediterranean dominance – wrote about it as it happened o Born in Megalopolis, Arcadia to a wealthy aristocratic family o Involved in Greek politics – rising leader of the Achaean League – when Rome went to war against Macedon, his life changes o With defeat of Macedonians and King Perseus, the Battle of Pydna (168) – they dissolve the Macedonian empire – they get rid of the monarchy and take 1000 Greek prisoners o He has lots of freedom of movement, released from roman captivity in 150 BCE – goes with them on the Third Punic War in Carthage – o He traveled lots, had lots of know how about Roman military and politics, writes for a Greek audience – wants to explain how Romans came to dominate the Mediterranean world in only 53 years – great interest in Roman mixed constitution o Felt the Romans had achieved a near perfect balance of government o Believed in historians being in the field – doesn’t believe in armchair historians o Developed that 1 st hand experience was essential for historical accuracy o Involves inquiry, an emphasis on the contemporary – didn’t use supernatural tales – looked for people to learn lessons from his history – praises bravery, moral courage, good faith, restraint, generosity blah o Important moral compass in his history o Emphasizes diligence and education, critical of other historians – thought they were biased and inadequate in their accounts o One of the 1st ancients to write universal history – takes large section of time and writes about whats going on in Greece, North Africa, Rome, etc…. o Livy often used Polybius as a source o Without him, we wouldn’t understand the insight into this period of Roman history - Social and Economic Changes o Early Romans had a simple, agricultural economy – small farmers, just enough food for families – not surplus people o As a result of roman conquest, that system was replaced with something far more complicated  Extensive Trade Networks  Luxury goods were in demand now – influx of eastern luxury goods – paid with precious metals they got from foreign conquests o By 200 BCE, it was tough for Roman farmers to make a living: Reason::: developed from Roman expansion and warfare  In early Rome, warfare was seasonal, most soldiers were farmers  When the Roman soldiers fought far away, they were away from their home/crops for long periods of time  Farms went untended and had to be sold – wealthy farmers bought these and made them into large farming estates – latifundia – intended to make cash crops, sold for a profit o Cattle, Wine, and Olive Oil were major – Latifundia were worked by slaves – owners looked at it as an investment – slaves who worked on these were non-Romans, taken prisoner in war o Changes caused big disruption in Roman society – those former farmers with no land had to move into the city o In the cities, work was scarce for free romans because slaves would do all the unskilled work (poor romans had no job options) – o Urban poverty and crime became a serious problem – other Romans became extremely wealthy whilst some Romans became incredibly poor with no job options o Winners in this economy – Senators made lots of money, Equestrians were next wealthy, could afford to serve as calvalry – they were businessmen o The wealthy in the 2nd century of Rome compared to the 3rd century of Rome lived in much better, more immaculate environments o Growing wealth disparity in this period – very apparent – attributed to Rome’s eventual downfall o Political Changes  After 200, a small group of better known families monopolized Roman offices  These families formed a class of wealthy roman Senators called – Nobiles (noble persons)  These families came to dominate the Senate – they were disconnected from the problems of the poor – no desire to share power with the Equestrians  When Romans absorbed a territory, they developed Provinces – each Province was given to a Roman General as a governor – Senators are the only ones who can become Proconsul (after Consul)  Proconsul had the power of the king within their provinces, they collected taxes, led the army there, and ___________???___________  They eventually got into trouble for extorting and stealing from the people in the Provinces – Senate wouldn’t help  They also stirred up frontier wars  Corruption grew within the empire as it grows, as did the insensitivity of foregin expansion and diplomacy. Illustrated here:  Greece: Southern Greece revolted against Roman influence – the Romans invaded and DESTROYED the city of Corinth – they didn’t have a reason outside of looting  Same year, they did something similar to Carthage – the city was completely destroyed in 146 BCE  146 BCE – Rome outgrew the republic/empire??? – this would turn into a violent revolution - The Gracchi Brothers o 146-133 BCE – all of these Roman problems continued to get worse o After 133, a series of internal conflicts broke out to undermined the structure of the Roman State – results from actions of 2 brothers o Tiberius Gracchus (d. 133) o Gaius Gracchus (d. 121) o Senate was reluctant to change anything – the Gracchus brothers were aristocrats who wanted to do something about these problems – this led to the fall of the Roman Republic o Not all slaves were created equal – slave hierarchy – bruts who worked the mines and educated ones who would run administrative offices o Treatment of slaves ranged – close relationships, rape, brutal punishment – dependent on your master o Slavery was a social institution that reinforced the bond b/t owner and slave o Part of Roman society from the beginning, almost o Rome becomes a slave society in the 3rd century BCE – accelerates in the 2nd century with the wars o Under Augustus, 30-40% of the people are slaves in Italy  Most were agriculture slaves o Slavery was found all through the empire – outside of Italy that number drops o Rome stopped being a slave society in 4th Century – slaves didn’t dominate large scale production at that point, but slavery was still present o A Roman didn’t have to be wealthy to own a slave, but the # of slaves you had increased your status – not quite as ECON driven as say, colonial slavery o Slaves were used in a variety of roles – they had less worth in the eyes of Roman law – but they could enjoy citizenship themselves, although it’s a slave society, sometimes they free and citizenize freed slaves o A Need for Power over Inferiors  Slave owning was the expression of power, as was the act of freeing a slave  Owners had the choice of life and death over slaves  Roman slavery was a state of living death – identity depended on their owners  Engrained in Roman kids early – us at top, everyone else at the bottom – everything else a slave had, owned or made belonged to their master – including family members – Romans associated socially low with morally low – thought slaves were incapable of honor  Slavery was part of the Roman mentality – okay to physically and sexually abuse slaves – they are property o Rome’s Demand for Slaves  200,000 new slaves needed yearly to repopulate the slave desire (10x more than peak average of new world average)  Source of slaves: POWs – conducted in mass to slave markets – taking slaves in war was a normal aspect of ancient warfare – part of a soldier’s loot  Natural reproduction was another source of resupply of slaves – kids of slaves inherited slavery – kids of slaves called Vernae “home grown slave” – these Vernae were more acceptant of their slave status – more docile  Owners encouraged the creation of Vernae – female slaves who bore 3 or more kids could earn their freedom –  One could also gain a slave by rescuing an abandoned child o Slaves as a Commodity  Salt, grain, and metals could be exchanged for slaves  Piracy and bandits also got new slaves from looting and raiding places  Cilician Pirates - Based out of southern Asia minor – famous for taking people as slaves - captured Julius Caesar as a young man, he bartered his way out of being sold as a slave, then hunted them down later in life and had them crucified  Roman slavery was a mix – skin color, race didn’t matter – anyone could be a slave – social distinction b.t slaves and free were immense – reality was fragile  Strict roman distinction between master and slave – slaves treated very poorly o The Burden of Becoming a Slave  Some communities commit mass suicide to avoid becoming slaves  Those captured lost all rights and ties to their family  They also lost all cultural identity being brought to new places  Most slaves were sold multiple times throughout their life  Most had to learn multiple languages  Became socially and psychologically dislocated  Some strong willed slaves dealt with their circumstances and were freed, some even became wealthy – but this was rare o On the Slave Market  Dehumanized on way to market – no privacy for anything and chained together  Suicide amongst slaves wasn’t uncommon  Sellers had to disclose any defects, diseases, suicide attempts in the past, and  Bills of sale said the slave’s origin - all info worn around the slaves neck – age, weight, origin, profession (hookers) – dehumanized like livestock  Slaves at auction were inspected like livestock, usually in the nude – slaves in this society were objects, not humans  Slaves with a good reputation were worth more on the market, they desired new slaves because they were thought to be easier to train, meanwhile the Vernae were prized above all (no trauma of capture and transport) o Slaves and Sex  Owners had full sexual access to their slaves  If a 3rd party raped or beat a slave, the master received justice for that indiscretion  Not all sexual relationships between slaves and masters were abusive, but few were consensual  Slaves could form social relationships and informal families – no legitimate marriages between slaves, but they could form informal marriages called “unions” – they were encouraged by owners, they wanted them to create Vernae o The Slave Workforce  Wealthy Romans had lots of slaves  Urban and Rural categories – determined by their work  Domestic slaves were Urban****** MORE desirable  Agricultural slaves were Rural  Jobs were diverse and often specialized, some were skilled artisans – some did the Arretine Ware (nice pottery) skills  Slaves worked in almost every occupation, except military service  Free, but poor romans were in direct competition with the slaves for work (slaves took all the low class jobs)  Slaves could learn a trade, and even continue to practice that if they were freed  Slaves and freedmen could work together in the same workshop o Working for the Man  There was no set retirement for slaves and kids started early  A slave’s job could change with time and skill  Lazy slaves could be demoted – jobs could change through out their lives  Herdsmen and shepherds had much more freedom of movement – kind of a liability –  Lives were harsh and dangerous  The large diversity of slave jobs and statuses served to NOT unite the slaves into a unified group  Most slaves didn’t have a common identity – owners would diversify their holdings  Land owners worked some lands with slaves and some with free tenants known as Coloni  With specialization, slaves were made responsible for specific tasks – tried to bump up morale  Slaves working were a part of society – slaves could be managers in almost everything (must have been trusted slaves) – sometimes even oversaw selling and buying slaves  The myth far out shadowed the man  Crude symbol of political freedom in contrast to political tyranny o Slave Resistance  uprisings from slaves become a thing of the past  Slave resistance was more local and isolated  Romans understood that slaves were inclined to theft – they committed arson, sabotaged things, faked illness – no more big uprisings o The Toll of Slavery  Slavery could be harmful  Romans considered attempted suicide was a defect  Romans made a law – murder of a master by one of his slaves resulted in the death/murder of every slave in the household  Another common problem – runaway slaves – fugitive slaves made for rural areas, ports – punishment was severe – beatings, brandings, etc  Pretending to be a freedman could result in crucifixion  Slaves often wore collars with owners name, some branded o The Reliability of Slaves  All acts of resistance could lead to big danger for slaves  Running away and sabotage were the two most common means of resistance  Abolition of slavery was never the goal in Roman society  Resistance was a personal form of self help – I personally want to escape the confines of slavery  In the Roman world, relations b/t master and slave did not change o The Roman Practice of Manumission  Roman slavery was violent, manipulative  Slavery wasn’t unique to the Romans  In some ways, Roman slavery was better than other examples in the ancient world  Ambitious slaves had many opportunities to succeed in Roman society – many slaves integrated themselves into the world around them  Roman society offered a way out for slavery – productive slaves were aided by grants of manumission – provided ex slaves, who were freed, the right of being Roman citizens (unique to the Romans)  Slaves could be awarded or purchase their freedom – for services rendered even  Since slaves lost identities and families, once free they often adopted the names of their masters and some continued to work for the same master  System was beneficial to the slave because he gained his freedom, often retained employment, and some former masters became client/patron relationships  Process was good for business and politics – good for masters too  Freedmen could marry, earn wealth and marry  Even though not all slaves earned their freedom, manumission was always an attractive carrot in the stick/carrot system that was Roman slave society at the time June 27, 2014 BONUS 3: Band: Ex Deo Song: The Final War Subject: The fall of the Roman Republic The Late Roman Republic and Its Fall - Marius and Sulla o Gaius Marius (157-86)  Senate did defeat Gracci bros but their moment of triumph was short  First important man was Gaius, he wasn’t a social reformer, unpopular with Senate because he didn’t come from distinguished Senatorial family – he was a novi homines (new men)  Normally, he wouldn’t have had a chance to reach high office, but hew gained enough support with the equestrian class and became Consul in 107  In 107. Rome was challenged by a war against North African people called the Numidians, Gaius was a brilliant field commander  Once in office, he changed how soldiers were recruited and equipped  Previously, they were drafter from Romans who owned land and other property, but by 107 the # of farmers had declined, leaving too few citizens available for service  To solve this shortfall, he did away with property requirements and got rid of the different classes of troops – everyone was the same, legionaries  These reforms turned the Roman legion into what we think of as the true roman army  Promised poor romans that he would give them bonuses and land if they served in his army  He looked for soldiers in the poorest of the Roman body, called the capite censi (head count)  Great opportunity for Roman poor, many men volunteered  To make good on his promises, he needed support from the Citizen assembly – Marius’ soldiers support him in politics – he became the patron to his soldiers, they were his clients  He was elected Consul 5 times  Reigns from 104-100 as Consul  These soldiers were from nothing, their hopes for advancements were in Gaius’ hands, his soldiers were more loyal to him than the state  Roman Warlord Culture – other strong political men do what Gaius does –  From this time forward, Roman armies were more loyal to their generals than the state o Cornelius Sulla (138-78)  Used army to threaten the state  From a good family, supported the Nobulus in politics  He was a political rival of Gaius Marius  In 88 BCE, He was made a general to lead an army in a major war in Asia minor to beat King Mithridates of Pontus  A Marius faction removes his status as commander  Sulla gets pissed, but he had a loyal army behind him, he asked his men to take control of the government – he uses a Roman army to attack Roman government  Rome hadn’t been occupied in over 300 years, Sulla took over the government, killed his enemies, then went to fight that war  He made himself dictator after returning home, this is a precedent he sets – takes control of the government twice  Understood that the republican government of Rome was in danger, so he used his dictatorship to try and fix the Roman government, during that period he made new laws to strengthen the powers of the Senate and the government  Influential Roman statesmen can still raise armies that are loyal to them  None of Sulla’s laws lasted long  First Roman general to turn his army against the Roman government  B/t 200-79 BCE – the Mixed Roman government declined and moved toward its final destruction  Senate was much to blame – too arrogant – opposed reform of any kind - the Roman constitution was organized to make reforms possible – possible for Gracci brothers without the help of the Senate, but change was difficult because of Senate’s opposition to it  Primarily, for self serving reasons, the Senate would resort to illegal means to get what they wanted – reformers and conservatives were less and less concerned with legality of what o Most famous conspirator, Brutus (85-42 BCE) – he and conspirators thought they had liberated a tyrant – Roman people hated them for the assassination o His murder is public, brutal and meant to send a message by the Senate – that message wasn’t received well by the People - Rome after Caesar o Leadership of the Caesarean faction fell to Marc Antony (85-30 BCE) – he negotiated an uneasy peace with the conspirators – Brutus and Cassius flee to the East, but they were made governors – Caesar was given a nice funeral and his will was upheld o So, in Caesar’s will… he names Octavian (63-27 BCE) – his adopted son and heir – his nephew is named heir – Octavian was 18 – he adopted the name of Caesar – knowing if he adopted the name Caesar, this was the easiest way to earn loyalty of Caesar’s soldiers o Octavian raises his own personal army and demand’s Antony’s inheritance – this challenges Antony and starts a feud between them o Tensions grow by growing criticisms of Statesman Cicero (106-43) – Not an ally of Marc Antony – he was one of Rome’s greatest politicians and orators – upset conspirators didn’t kill Antony when they killed Caesar – Called Antony opportunistic, a criminal, thuggish mentality – criticized the actions of Marc Antony o His attacks were so persuasive, the Senate declares him an enemy of the state o Cicero and the Senate thought they could destroy Antony this way o Octavian marches on Rome, elected consul and cancels truce with his father’s murders – they are now enemies of the state - The Second Triumvirate o Octavian, Antony and Lepidus o Brutus and Cassius (lead conspirators) were enemies of the state, war was inevitable o Octavian needs allies, so he jumps in bed with Antony and bury the hatchet o These two men and Lepidus (statesmen) made a 10 year legal pact in 43 BCE known as the 2nd Triumvirate – this one was different in that it was a specific political action o Dominated all political control over the Roman republic o They decided to enter Rome and kill ALL of their political enemies – emulated Sulla o Proscription – murdering of Senate, Cicero, his head and hands were displayed in the forum as a warning o Used confiscated land and wealth to build a new army o Caesar was deified – and Octavian was now the son of a God o With Rome under the control of the 2nd Triumvirate and a new army, they march east to fight Brutus and Cassius o The Battle of Philippi (42 BCE) – Antony and Octavian DEFEAT Brutus and Cassius, end that civil war and control all of the Roman world – B and C kill themselves - The Final War o With conspirator defeat, there wasn’t a clear enemy outside of the Caesarean faction o The rivalry b/t Octavian and Antony was reignited o Antony had the most experience of the 3 men, he claimed most of the fighting at the Battle of Philippi o Lepidus was squeezed out of power and exiled to Africa o Antony and Octavian split the pot o Antony goes East to fight wars o Octavian is left in Rome with all the troubles of putting the gov’t back together – put down rebellions in Gaul and Sicily o War b/t Octavian and Antony was avoided in 40 BCE with a marriage alliance – Octavia, Octavians daughter/sister – In the east, Antony fell in love with Cleopatra and left Octavia o Antony has a bad war in the east and he becomes more reliant on Cleo o Antony declares Caesarion the true heir of Rome (a bastard) – direct assault against Octavian – this is in 34 BCE o In 33 BCE – he marries Cleo o In 32 BCE – he divorces Octavia o Further, in Antony’s will he leaves the eastern portion of the Roman empire to his Egyptian children, known as the Donation of Alexandria o When he did this, this was the last straw o Octavian (master of propaganda) – turned people and senate of Roma against Antony – he published Antony’s will for everyone – they demanded war be declared on Antony and Cleo o So, Octavian wants to be the sole ruler of the Roman world o Battle of Actium (31 BCE) – they meet in battle – Octavian’s favorite general Agrippa beat the shit out of Cleo and Antony’s navy – Antony’s army deserted to Octavian when Antony and Cleo fled o Cleo and Antony commit suicide upon returning to Alexandria – they don’t want to Be Octavian’s prisoners o 30 BCE – Octavian conquers Egypt – made Egypt his own, personal Roman province – Has Caesarion murdered o Octavian becomes the 1st Roman Emperor and becomes Augustus – last man standing, big winner – once he defeats Antony, he creates sole power for himself – transition between Roman Republic to Roman Empire July 2, 2014 BONUS 4: Band: Ex Deo – Song: I, Caligula – Matter: The Corruption of Augustus’ Principate - Augustus as Emperor o Augustus (27 BCE-14 CE)  Augustus means “illustrious one”  Name was Octavian  27 BCE – Switch from Roman Republic to Roman Empire o Most important man in Roman history o Reigned for 45 years o From 30 BCE (Egypt Capture) to his death, he reorganized the government to give control to one man – First Roman Empire o Used military to put himself in charge o He could prevent the actions of other Consuls if he wanted – they had to agree with him to serve o Had the power of Censor – who could be part of Roman government and Roman citizenship?? o Could block any undesirable action by the Senate o He was also Tribune of the Plebs???? o He controlled who could be elected to offices o He had more auctoritas than any other Roman because he controlled all of the offices  Elections were more of a formality, but he was technically elected o Facade of Republic under the control of one man as emperor - Ruling the Empire o Control of the Provinces brought control of the Army – all the army was in the Provinces o Little fighting to be done in Italy – on fringes of Roman territory fighting was more likely. o Dangerous to the new stability of Augustus’ state – he recognized that his adopted father and the God Caesar – this was dangerous, he needed to change this? o He had to control governors to secure his position – he had the Senate divide the Provinces into 2 groups o In the older provinces (less likely to encounter trouble) – the senate elected governors like always – away from potential danger, minimal military – no threat to emperor o Newer provinces – Augustus was made governor – he served as governor in more than half of the provinces at one time o Allowed to appoint assistants called legates – to rule in his name  Directly responsible to Augustus  He could remove them at any time  They couldn’t fight without his permission o Through this, Augustus kept control over the army  First emperor to suffer damnatio memoriae – the damnation of your memory – wipe your name from the history of Rome o The Clever Fool  Claudius (41-54 CE)  Slight disability and stutter, overlooked initially  Caligula’s uncle  Capable administrator, relied heavily on advisors  He conquered Britain  No luck with wives – one of them, Messalina – was a bigamist and a nymphomaniac – she challenged a hooker to a sex off and she won – Claudius had her killed  Second wife- Agrippina – she wanted the throne for her son from another marriage, in 54 CE, she allegedly poisoned him and he died o The Last of the Julio-Claudians Dynasty  Agrippina got her wish, nephew of Caligula – Nero (54-68 CE)  Never took ruling the empire seriously  Party boy, extravagant  Killed his mother, wife and successor  Also killed Seneca – a trusted advisor  Also, Corbulo – a successful general o Killed successful people within his administration  During the Great Fire of Rome in 64 CE, a fire took out a large portion of Rome – Nero blames Christianity for this  The first martyrs of Christianity die from this- he has them executed  Also, a famine breaks out in the City under his rule  His failures led to open rebellion in 68 CE, the Governor of Gaul – Vindex – openly rebels – led to Nero committing suicide –  68 CE - Ends Julio Claudian Dynasty  He too has his memory stricken from the record o Domus Aurea (64-68 CE)  Nero built this after the Great Fire of Rome – on top of the ruins of the fire  Cost lots – very opulent – destroyed after Nero’s death o o 69 CE – The Year of the Four Emperors  Following death of Nero, 4 men vied for the role of Emperor  Galba – assassinated because he was too old  Pritorian guard then elect Otho - he had no support outside of Italy – lost a battle to Vitellius and killed himself  Vitellius – executed by enemy troops – fat guy –  Vespasian (69-79 CE)  Proclaimed Emperor in July of 69 after Virellius death  He was of a non aristocratic background  This is significant, it meant that Emperors didn’t need to be noble born  His forces beat Vitellius and made him the sole Emperor  Judea???  Introduced men of merit – men who earned their positions  Restored stability to the empire by founding the Flavian Dynasty and began the construction of the Flavian Amphitheater (The Colosseum) o Titus (79-81 CE)  Son of Vespasian  Sacked something in 70 CE ???  Well liked – Arch of Titus to commemorate his victory over the Jews  Reign most notable for:  Eruption of Mount Vesuvius o Pompeii was covered in ash  And a great plague goes through Rome, Titus dies of it o Domitian (81-96 CE)  Disliked in Rome  Younger brother of Titus  Cruel – punished people with banishment and execution  Built himself a crazy palace – Dacians  His political enemies assassinated him in 96 CE – suffered the same memory stricken thing  Flavian Dynasty ended with him o Nerva (96-98 CE)  No major civil war followed the fall of the Flavian Dynasty  Senate elected old guy, Nerva – he couldn’t establish a dynasty – old, well liked, no kids  Ushered in The Five Good Emperors (Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius)  They elect someone – not their son to be the next emperor  He cuts back spending and __________ o Trajan (98-117 CE)  First emperor to be born outside of Italy  More Expansion of who could be Emperor – didn’t have to be Italian or Noble  Popular with army – military leader – successful military campaigns where he made money  Lowered taxes  Built a big new forum  Trajan’s Column in the forum – spiral pictograph of what his campaign was  Roman Empire reaches greatest extent under Trajan  Arguably, he stretched Roman army and Resources too thin o Hadrian (117-138 CE)  Adopted son of Trajan  Abandoned new places – knew it was too big for the resources they had  He pulled back from the East because they couldn’t maintain it -  Most Famous for building Hadrian’s Wall in England  Also had to suppress a massive Jewish uprising – the Bar Cochba Revolt (132-135 CE) – Forced Jews to leave Jerusalem  Lover of Greek culture – Philhellene – first emperor to sport a beard  Also was an architect  Toward the end of his life he became sickly and paranoid o Antoninus Pius (138-161 BCE)  Reserved Conservative man  Reign was uneventful  He was the ___________________ related ?? o Marcus Aurelius (161 – 180 CE)  Followed Pius  Authored a work called Meditations – he was a Stoic – smart man  His skill as a general kept enemies at bay  Broke traditioin of not electing sons to heir with his son Comidus July 3, 2014 Barbarian Peoples and the Fringes of the Empire - Living with Romans - Roman Opinions on Civilization - Romano-Barbarian Acculturation MISSED – Get Notes!!! July 7, 2014 Decline and Crisis In the Roman Empire - Before the Decline - The Cause of the Decline o Cause 1: External Invasions: “Barbarians at the Gates”  Many of Rome’s troubles in the 3rd Century stem from acculturation  Most German tribes along the frontier operated as independent tribes – we also note that the Germans work as mercenaries often – they slowly learned to function in larger groups  Pooling resources and fighting as one could win them more spoils  By end of 2nd century, the German tribes put things into practice what they learned from the Romans – Germanic Confederations – each has its own head leader – big problem for Roman frontier  Working for Rome taught the Germans how to fight more effectively and exposed them to the riches of the Roman Empire  Didn’t want to just be mercenaries – they wanted Roman land and be in charge of Roman properties –  Beginning in 170s CE – Germans started to push across the Danube river  For Rome, 2 most Dangerous confederations – Quadi and Marcomanni – they broke through the frontier and into Northern Italy – Marcus Aurelius drove them back across the frontier - didn’t beat them entirely – the Germans kept up these try’s for 70 years – but their destructive potential was kept in check by the Roman Army - they essentially buffered the German Confederations  Around 250 CE – a group known as the Goths broke through again – first case of an Emperor dying at the hands of a Germanic Tribe – they killed the emperor Decius  Roman reputation was hurt in the middle of the 3rd century – the Eastern frontier was also under attack – in 220 CE – the Parthians gave way to the Sassanian Persians –  The Sassanian King – Shapur the Great (240-270) – Invades Syria and Asia Minor and breaks his peace with Rome – the Roman emperor Valerian was pissed – in 259 he marched to fight the Sassanian threat – another Roman army is wiped out – Valarian is captured – only emperor to be captured in battle  Big blow to Roman reputation – Shapur held him as a prisoner for the rest of his life  By 260s, Roman reputation was in shambles – especially the Army o Cause 2: Internal Unrest: “Watch your Back”  “Barracks Emperors”  If the Roman empire were healthy internally, this could have been better  But, the health of the state was hurt – 170s – terrible plague in the Roman empire  Outbreaks of the same plague broke out periodically in the 3rd century  Maybe early form of Bubonic Plague  Many ancient authors thought the plague came from the east – punishment for Roman sacrilege  Persians decimated roman army – maybe their divine power was fading?? We’re wicked, being punished  Nor was this plague the only sickness hurting the Roman state – the position of Emperor himself -political sickness  Undermined the emperor’s authority – by mid 3rd century – emperors weren’t all powerful heads of state – they become puppets of the army – still in charge of political/military affairs – couldn’t effectively command distant armies on all of the front – first political splintering of the Roman empire  260 CE – Western provinces of Rome broke and formed the Gallic Empire (260-274 CE)  Then, in the same year, the Eastern provinces broke away and formed the Palmyrene Empire (260-273 CE)  Severus’ last words to his sons: give to the army, fuck the rest – plants seed of emperor placing all hope on the soldiers – when they realize they have power (soldiers) – the breaking off splintering stuff happens – used power to do what they wanted  Severus wanted to make the army happy by enriching them  If a Proventil army was unhappy, its soldiers could rebel and name it’s own commander the new emperor – legit path to the throne  If the rebellious soldiers were successful, the new Emperor was indebted to his group – if they lost, armies left – only the usurper was killed – this happens a lot in the 3rd Century Crisis  Men who became emperor in this manner – “Barracks Emperor” – proclaimed emperor by their unhappy soldiers  235-284 – 26 men claimed to be emperor – average reign 2 years – all but 2 had bloody deaths - Surviving the Crisis o Rome Recovers: Stepping Back from the Brink  Didn’t collapse in the 3rd Century – 3 men responsible for this  1. Claudius Gothicus (268-270) – beats back Germanic tribes, reclaims Spain – dies of Plague, replaced by  Aurelian (270-275 CE) – repels barbarian invasions and reunifies Roman empire – those eastern and western factions that broke/splintered off  Re-establishes imperial frontiers  He fell victim to assassination (sickness of soldiers wanting someone else to be emperor  10 more years of war torn fighting within empire until a man would rise to fix everything  Rome needed drastic reform – first time a city like Rome needs a new wall – desperate times  3. Diocletian (284-305 CE)  Most important – savvy – last of “Barracks Emperors” – comes to power in the same way, but breaks the cycle  Rose on backs of his troops – once he was emperor he instituted political and military reforms – no other barracks emperors did this  Solved 2 problems: o Shored up Empire’s borders -stops barbarian incursions o Stops cycle of civil war and barracks emperors  How did he do it???  Diocletian’s Reforms  He stationed permanent border guards along the frontier – Limitanei (border men) – held frontier  Made cavalry regiments bigger – mobile forces  Successful because military reforms were combined with political reforms  The Emperor couldn’t be at two places at once – fighting on multiple fronts – when Emperor led an army personally, they were less likely to rebel and fought better – Great innovation – split imperial power – Maximian is made his co-emperor – both took title of Augustus – plural (augusti) – each oversaw ½ of the empire – Dio (East) – Max (Western 1/2)  Co-emperors before – but Diocletian decided each of them would choose a junior emperor – Caesares (junior emperors) – when an Augustus died, his Caesar would jump into power – then he would pick a new junior partner  The next emperor was always known before hand under this system – presumably this knowledge made for a clearer succession – Romans had more emperors available to patrol frontier and cover multiple territories with more control  Historians call this system the Tetrachy (Rule of 4) – admin of Diocletian – 4 rulers  In 305, Diocletian voluntarily gave up his throne, made his Co-Augusti Maximian retire too – Jr. emperors step in – they pick 2 new Jr. Emperors  Diocletian retired to Croatia and did cabbage farming – retired from political life  Despite this seamless transition, the Tetrachy didn’t last long  In 311, Diocletian dies – system begins to unravel  Monotheistic  Christianity was an exclusive religion – (not true of mystery religions)  Exclusiveness gave Christains a stronger sense of belonging to the congregation – more of a sense of community  Developed out of Judiasm – many more ethical rules to follow  Mystery cults would say, be a good person in some groups – but not how to be that good person  Christaianity gave a better guide to conduct – ethical conduct on par with Greek philosopher ideas – didn’t have to be a philosopher to understand and follow the rules of Christianity – worked for the masses  Appeal for educated and uneducated people alike –  Extensive scriptures – Chritians could turn to this and clarify their questions  Old Testament from Judiasm and soon to have its own… - Chritianity and The Roman World o Romans were okay with religious toleration - Roman world was open religiously – pay taxes, give honor to emperor – you’re cool o Romans didn’t mind/bother with mystery religions unless they fucked with the imperial cult ??????? o Romans exempted Judiasms from Emperial Religion as long as they didn’t try to make jews from other places???? o Christianity became a special case – practice – jews were a closed community - e was banned throughout the empire within 2 generations of Jesus’ death – reasons were political o Emperors thought the Christians were opposed to the state and subversive o Christians didn’t accept the Emperial cult, but unlike Judiasm – Christianity was a new, evangelical religion – they wanted everyone to join – and everyone to renounce the Empirical cult o They were weird – called themselves brothers and sisters – ate the body of man and drank the blood- sought out martyrdom eagerly – new radical psyche scared the Romans o God was also a father, son and spirit at the same time – no pieces of the trinity were connected to each other at the same time – idea was strange (think pater familiias – father was son at same time blew their minds) o Christians were subversive, cannibals, confusing ideas o Growth of Christianity within the empire was a dangerous experiment o Standard Procedure of Roman Government: Don’t persecute Christians actively – as long as they were quiet – actions were taken against them only on rare occasions – Pleny the Younger source – Christians made a big enough noise for Pleny to have to deal with them o Persecutions of Christians were rare – 2 in 300 years of empire wide active persecution - Christianity Takes Form????????? o Founder of Christianity was a Jew, Jesus of Nazareth (4 BCE-33CE) o Was a real, historical person o Jesus never wrote down anything, what we know of his life comes from the writings of Matthew, Mark and Luke called The Synoptic Gospels  Each of these Gospels give account of the life and teachings of Jesus  These things were written years after Jesus’ death  Q Gospels – no longer in existence, sources more contemporary with Jesus life – Mark, Matthew and Luke used this to write the Synoptic Gospels o Main teachings of Jesus:  Moral Mesaage- God wanted a new, moral awareness among his followers – more than just following  He told people to work and play with one another  Get along, be good – elevate  Moral message is more important than the laws and traditions of the Jewish faith – Jew/Christian break happens here  Also, he advocated that following these teachings would ________  Jesus was arrested because ______________________ - The Synoptic Gospel Writers o 60 CE – Probably written in Rome – The Gospel of Mark –  Mark was writing for a Greek speaking audience in Rome – he makes no reference to Jewish law or practices  Less a narrative – describes Jesus in his words, person  He makes no mention of the virgin birth o The Gospel of Matthew – most likely written in the 80 CE  Largely Synthetic  Borrowed Heavily from the Q Gospels/Gospel of Mark as sources  Writer was probably writing for a Jewish Christian audience in Palestine  Work is full of allusions to the old testament  Also, that Jesus was the messiah of the Jewish prophecy o The Gospel of Luke  Written at the same time as the Gospel of Matthew  Writer admits he wasn’t around when jesus was around  Claimed to have investicated everything carefully – Luke was more like a historian – wrote his account for Gentiles – non jewish readers  Message was: Jesus as a healer, helper of pool/oppressed, sufferers for others  Not considered one of the Synoptic Gospels – because of the emphasis on the divine nature of Christ o The Journeys of Paul  Even with written records of Gosepl writers, its possible Christianity wouldn’t have grown so much without this guy  Hellenized Jew named Saul – changed name to Paul of Tarsus (5- 67 CE)  Starts off as a persecutor of Christians – around 35 CE, he has a profound Christian experience and converts – baptized and changes name to Paul  He becomes a Christian Missionary – Asia Minor, Greece, then to Italy  In 50 CE, Paul goes to first church council and says that the message of Chrtianity wasn’t just for Jews, it was for everyone  Also convinced Jewish Christians that the Jew laws didn’t need to apply to non-Jews – they should only follow Christian laws  First published works of Christianity – his letters to communities about his ideas – letters set many of the doctorines of the Early Christian church  Made Christ’s death and resurrection the central element of the religion  Walked away from Jesus as a Jewish Messiah  Other message: believe in Jesus, you go to heaven  Christ was portrayed as an intermediate between humans and god??  Christianity was NOT an extension of Judaism – wanted a clean break  Didn’t have to become a Jew and then a Christian  Paul was a Roman Citizen – when he was arrested for his Christian faith, he demands to be tried as one  Taken to Rome, treated okay for 2 years – executed under Nero’s reign - Early Difficulties within Christianity o Christianity grew, members grew o Problems come up:  Theological – nature of Christ and his relationship to god are unclear in the early writings – they focus more on the message of Jesus – Nature of Christ was an arguing point  The Gnostics - No perfect being could inhabit an imperfect, physical body – denied possibility of the Trinity and denied Jesus could have ever been a human being o According to religious historian Eusebius – Constantine says he saw a vision of Christ before he fought – he was told to place a special symbol on his soldiers shields o With his victory at the Milvian Bridge, allowed for the birth of Christianity in a legitimate way within the Roman Empire - he becomes the first Christian emperor on his deathbed - Constantine Consolidates Power o Constantine didn’t want to share power o After the bridge battle, he made an alliance with Licinius – he has control of the eastern half of the empire o In 313, only 2 emperors remain – Constantine had west, Licinius had east o They cemented the alliance through marriage o 313 CE – Edict of Milan – declared that all religions would be tolerated  Also meant that everything confiscated by the state from Christians would be returned  Persecution of Christians was a thing of the past now o Constantine and Licinius tensions build – Constantine used Christianity to establish a new power base – he could appoint new Christian men to government – they owed their new status to Constantine – made them very loyal – also gave Christian church special things – exemption from taxes o Licinius thought Constantine was using Christianity to under mind his authority – to retaliate, he began to clamp down on the Christians within the East – he moves away from the religion o 322 – war breaks out – 325 – Licinius is dead – Constantine is now emperor of all of the Roman Empire - Constantine and the Totalitarian o Saw Christianity as a good political tool to hold the empire together o Called himself the equal of the apostles and the Christian representative on earth o When Diocletian takes power, he changes how the state is run – restrictions placed on freedom and movement o This period of history is known as The Dominate – formed by Diocletian – because the emperor was a totalitarian ruler, treated as if he was a god – not a first citizen anymore – no challenges o Principate of Augustus was now dead – o Constantine was able to expand the powers of the emperor even further – senate was now irrelevant - more of a prestigious office now – no difference between senator and equestrians o Constantine also expanded the Imperial Court – household of all these people – Royal court basically o Under Constantine, Christians had more freedom o Christians began to fight to vie for power within the regime – he endorsed it to unify the empire under himself, with one religion – he didn’t bank on these issues o Some Christians were very intolerant – anti-pagan laws emerge – flip the switch and persecute pagans o Most Romans are still not Christian and they see it as a religion among many o Many Romans might add Christ to their pantheon o Constantine still issued coins with other gods – pagan symbols - Constantine and Christianity o First Christian Emperor – comes at Christianity from a political sense o What does that mean?  His edict of Milan  Saw god before the bridge battle  He was baptized by an Arian right before his death o His mother, Helena became a dedicated, orthodox Christian  She is alleged to discover the fragments of the true cross  Built famous church of the holy sepulcher o Constantine treated Christianity like a traditional Roman polytheist  Used the Christian god at the bridge battle in a very Roman sense, he promised the Christian god that in exchange for his support/help, he would pledge his support to them – including helping out Christianity o This didn’t necessarily make him a Christian – the Christian god was just one of his favorite Gods o He continued to use pagan imagery o His recognition of Christianity’s potential power and influence made him revolutionary o Not drawn for religious/moral composition – added power and influence it afforded him drew him to Christianity o Understood this could be a powerful tool to subjugate the people of the Roman empire under his sole rule – he cared little about theological argument within the sects of Christianity – emphasized unity, tended to go with the majority – unity is key – rejected Donatism (too radical – would hurt unification in N. Africa) o Christianity became a world power and influenced western civ because it allowed its leaders to exhibit power  Hierarchal structure – who is in charge has great power  Also good for controlling masses of people o Let Roman emperor become a powerful spiritual leader, unlike before – before this – the imperial cult – couldn’t structure peoples lives – as head of Christian church – Constantine had more power – detachment of religion and the political - A New Capital o Constantine makes a second capital in the eastern part of the Empire – in Byzantium – this new eastern capital had a great harbor, closer to eastern provinces $$$, easy to defend by land and sea, something about the Sassanian Persians and the Bosphorous Straight here??? o Beautified the city with all the necessary buildings – in 330 CE – he names the city Nova Roma – soon after named Constantinople in his honor o Although, he had unified the empire – the new capital would drive a wedge to Rival Rome in the east – drives a wedge between west and east - The Constantine Dynasty o Constantious I (dad)and Constantine founded the Constantinian Dynasty – prone to internal destruction, violence, etc. o He didn’t want many civil wars, unlike Diocletian, he wanted to secure the future of the empire through his family o In 326 CE – he had his wife and son killed – Son named Crispus – flimsy evidence of a plot o Turned remaining 3 sons and 2 nephews into 5 potential successors – thought they would rule together after his death – WRONG – this was more likely an indicator that civil war would follow his death – renewed the thought process of Diocletian to share power and manage the empire o Constantine’s sons don’t want to share power o 337 CE Constantine DIES – his 3 sons have 2 nephews killed immediately – then they establish a third triumvirate – they all became Augusti and divided the empire into 3 parts – didn’t last long – Constantine II (west) (eldest brother) thought he was senior emperor – decides to punish younger brother by invading Italy – during campaign in 340 CE – he is killed o Constans becomes emperor of all the west – becomes an orthodox Cathoic – but Constantius II (324-361 CE) converts to Arianism – Arian Christian o Constans (baby brother) assassinated in 350 CE o After his death, Constantius II had chance to become a ruler like his father, but a usurper from the West contested his power - Constantius II Emperor o Constantius II (324-361 CE) o Makes his cousin, Gallus Caesar – o He does this to put down the usurper in the west to put the guy down- he was successful and the guy ends up killing himself – Constantius puts down everyone who supported him o Constantius is now sole ruler of the empire