NAS2 Exam Ch (2,4,5,6) Questions & Answers with Correct Solutions 2023., Exams of Nursing

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Describe the difference between organic and inorganic compounds - Exact Answer: inorganic- doesn’t contain C or H organic- contain C and H Special Chars of water - Exact Answer: -water can be used as a lubricant and cushion -absorbs water but doesn’t greatly increase the temp -universal solvent Describe the difference between hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis reactions. - Exact Answer: hydrolysis- monomers are released by the ADDITION of a water molecule- adding OH to one monomer and H to the other dehydration- monomers are REMOVED of OH and H from the other side Define acid, base, and buffer. - Exact Answer: ACID- release H+ in solution (INCREASE concentration of H ions) BASE- release OH- in solutions (DECREASE the concentration of hydrogen ions) BUFFER- help maintain constant pH by neutralizing the solution

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Describe the concept of the pH scale and describe how it relates to the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution - Exact Answer: Acidic solutions- increase in H+ and decrease in pH (pH: 0-6.99) Neutral solutions- equal number of H+ and OH- (pH 7) Alkaline (basic)solutions- decrease in H+, increase in pH (pH: 7.01- 14) Explain how monomers and polymers are related. - Exact Answer: polymer- large molecule made of many similar or identical subunits called monomers (subunits are monomers) Describe chemical composition of carbohydrates. - Exact Answer: made of simple sugars (carbon, hydrogen and oxygen) Describe the structures and functions of monosaccharides and disaccharides, providing examples. - Exact Answer: Mono- monomers of carbohydrates- energy source all body cells can use for glucose to make ATP (Ex: glucose, fructose) Di- double sugars (linked monosaccharides) Ex: sucrose, lactose and maltose

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Describe the structure of a polysaccharide, and describe the functions of starch, glycogen, and cellulose - Exact Answer: Poly: chains of many sugar units (polymer of carbohydrates) Starch: storage form for plants, humans turn it into glucose Glycogen: primary storage for glucose in animals (liver and muscles), easily converted for energy Cellulose: plant cell wall component, humans cannot digest this bc we lack the enzymes to break sugars Describe the general structure of a fatty acid, and the molecular differences between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, as well as their states at room temperature. - Exact Answer: Fatty acids- have long "tails" composed of covalently bonded C and H Saturated- all C-C bonds, max # of H atoms, SOLID at room temp Unsat- O or more C=C double bonds (causing the kink) reducing the # of H atoms, LIQUID at room temp.

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Triglyceride’s structure, chars and function - Exact Answer: Triglycerides- called fats when solid and oils when liquid, composed of 3 fatty acids bonded to glycerol molecules- functions: energy storage, insulation and protection Phospholipids structure, chars and function: - Exact Answer: main component of cell membrane, 2 fatty acid tails (hydrophobic) and phosphate head (hydrophilic) Steroids/Cholesterol structure, chars and function: - Exact Answer: four interlocking rings, important in cell membranes, vitamin D synthesis and the building block of many hormones and bile salts. Describe the functions and give examples of proteins. - Exact Answer: used for support, structure, movement, transport, communication and disease defense. Ex: collagen, keratin, cartliage List the components of an amino acid and be

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able to recognize its general structure from a picture - Exact Answer: central carbon(C), amino group (-NH2), carboxyl/acid group (-COOH), Hydrogen (-H) and R group Define peptide bond and denaturation. - Exact Answer: Peptide bond: covalent bond between two amino acids that form by dehydration synthesis Denaturation: is a change in the structure of a molecule through physical or chemical means Describe the protein folding structures: primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary - Exact Answer: Primary- sequence of amino acids form a chain Secondary- chain of amino acids form spirals and sheets Tertiary- 3D shape forms when secondary structure folds up to form a compact globular molecule Quaternary- two or more polypeptide chains combine to form a functional protein.

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Define substrate, active site, and activation energy. - Exact Answer: Substrate- is a reactant in an enzymatic reaction Active site- regions of the enzyme where the substrate binds. Activation energy- energy imput Describe the characteristics of enzymes - Exact Answer: Enzymes are catalysts: -proteins that lower the activation energy of a chemical reaction -are not changed or used up in the reaction -speeds up the reactions List the three components of a nucleotide and able to recognize its general structure from a picture. - Exact Answer: nitrogen containing base pentose (5 carbon)sugar phosphate group Give the functions of DNA and RNA, and compare these nucleic acids by number of strands,

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specific sugar, and nitrogen-containing bases. - Exact Answer: DNA- contains sugar deoxyribose, nitrogen-containing bases- adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine, stores genetic info and located in nucleus RNA- contains sugar ribose, nitrogen bases- adenine, uracil, cytosine and guanine, carries instructions for making one protein and coordinates the synthesis of proteins, made in nucleus and active at ribosomes in cytoplasm Difference- different sugars, what they contain and one base is different Describe the structure and function of ATP. - Exact Answer: Three phosphate groups connected to ribose(center) which connects to adenine. -energy that is formed immediately usable by the body and powers chemical reactions. Describe the difference between phosphorylation and hydrolysis as they relate to ATP - Exact Answer: Phosph- energy stored (ADP and free phosphate form ATP)

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Hydrolysis- energy released (bond broken and ATP becomes ADP and a free phosphate) Identify and describe the three main parts of a DNA nucleotide. - Exact Answer: sugar (5 carbon) phosphate group nitrogen containing base Give the specific name of the sugar and name the four possible nitrogen bases contained in DNA - Exact Answer: sugar= deoxyribose possible bases- Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Thymine (T), and Cytosine(C) Explain the difference between purine and pyrimidine bases. - Exact Answer: purine= 2 ring nitrogen base pyrimidine= 1 ring nitrogen base Describe the helical structure of DNA, including the sugar-phosphate "backbone" and the nitrogenous bases that compose the "rungs." Define complementary - Exact Answer: -helical structure= twisted ladder

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-sides of ladder composed of the sugar and phosphate portions -rungs are: G-C, A-T -complementary= matching strands Explain and apply DNA-DNA base pairing rules. Indicate how many hydrogen bonds form between base pairs. - Exact Answer: The sequence in one strand determines the the sequence in the other strand- matching! G-C= 3 hydrogen bonds A-T= 2 hydrogen bonds Define semiconservative replication. - Exact Answer: semi- after replication each DNA helix has a parental strand and a new daughter strand. Describe the roles of the following factor involved with DNA replication: helicase - Exact Answer: seperates the strands of DNA Describe the roles of the following factor involved with DNA replication: binding protein - Exact Answer: prevents single strands from rejoining

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Describe the roles of the following factors involved with DNA replication: primase and primers - Exact Answer: makes a short stretch of RNA on the DNA template Describe the roles of the following factors involved with DNA replication: polymerase - Exact Answer: adds DNA nucleotides to the RNA primer (proofreads activity and checks and replaces bases if needed) Describe the roles of the following factors involved with DNA replication: ligase - Exact Answer: seals the sugar phosphate backbone Describe the difference between leading strand and lagging strand in DNA replication. In what direction are new strands of DNA made? - Exact Answer: leading- continues in a 5' to 3' direction lagging- discontinuous synthesis, produces Okazaki frags. new strands are made in 5' to 3' direction

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Define antiparallel and Okazaki fragment. - Exact Answer: antiparallel- strands are oriented in the opposite directions (one upside down other right side up) Okazaki frag- short sequences of DNA nucleotides later linked together by ligase Describe how DNA and genes are related. - Exact Answer: DNA provides the blueprint Gene- is a segment of DNA that contains info necessary for creating a polypeptide chain. Describe how chromatin and chromosomes are related. - Exact Answer: -chromosomes are a condensed form of chromatin -Chromatin are the loose version of chromosomes in the nucleus prior to division Describe the structure of a replicated chromosome, including sister chromatids and centromere. - Exact Answer: Chromatins containing replicated DNA condense into chromosomes at the beginning of mitosis.

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The sister chromatids attach at the centromere, and together they make one duplicated chromosome. Define homologous chromosomes. Indicate how many chromosomes and chromosome pairs humans have. - Exact Answer: -homologous chromosomes are the two copies of a single chromosome found in each somatic cell. -Humans have 46 chromosomes and 22 pairs + 1 sex pair What are the steps of cell division. - Exact Answer: Prophase; Metaphase; Anaphase; Telophase Cytokinesis>G1 Early Interphase>G2 Late Interphase What happens during prophase - Exact Answer: 1. The nucleoli disappear

2. Chromatin fibers coil up to become discrete chromosomes.
3. Each chromosome consists of two identical sister chromatids, joined at the centromere.
4. Microtubules grow out from the centrosomes, initiating formation of the mitotic spindle.

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What happens during metaphase - Exact Answer: 1. chromosomes are lined up along equator

2. chromosomes are pulled towards opposite poles What happens during anaphase? - Exact Answer: 1. The two centromeres of each chromosome come apart, separating the sister chromatids.
3. The spindle fibers pull apart the chromatids to form two nucleus of the cells. What happens in telophase? - Exact Answer: The nuclear envelope re- forms and the spindle apparatus disintegrates. (Almost two cells) What is cytokinesis - Exact Answer: the cytoplasmic division of a cell at the end of mitosis or meiosis, bringing about the separation into two daughter cells. G1 early interphase - Exact Answer: cells resume normal functions or enter another division cycle

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G2 late interphase - Exact Answer: Cell checks for complete DNA replication Differentiate between mitosis and meiosis: number of divisions, number of daughter cells produced, the relative amount of genetic material in daughter cells, and type of cells that go through each division type. - Exact Answer: Mitosis- cell replicates DNA once and divides once, results in two cells that have the same amount of chromosomes as parent cell. (ex: zygote>embryo>fetus) Meiosis- production of sex cells (gametes); replicated DNA once and divides twice=4 cells with half the amount of chromosomes Order the stages of interphase: G1, S, G2, and G0 - Exact Answer: G1- checkpoint; S- growth&DNA synthesis; G2- growth and final prep. G0- non-dividing but functioning cells define cleavage furrow - Exact Answer: the area where it pinches inward (when the cell splits in two)

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Describe the importance of control over the cell cycle. - Exact Answer: - proper timing and completion is vital; genetic disorders arise from mistakes (during replication and distribution of chromosomes) Define apoptosis - Exact Answer: programmed cell death Define cancer - Exact Answer: uncontrolled cell growth Define malignant - Exact Answer: destructive to surrounding tissues, rapid growth and division- can seed new tumors in body Define benign - Exact Answer: non-cancerous; sheath surrounding tumor that prevents it from spreading Define metastasis - Exact Answer: The spread of cancer cells beyond their original site Explain how the plasma membrane is organized, including the parts of a phospholipid, the

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arrangement of the lipid bilayer and hydrophilic/hydrophobic interactions - Exact Answer: -A double layer- phospholipid bilayer -each phospholipid contains with a hydrophilic head and two hydrophobic tails. (hydrophobic tails stay inward and hydrophilic outward) List the types of molecules contained in the plasma membrane (beside phospholipids). - Exact Answer: The membrane is a mixture of: phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, glycolipids, and glycoproteins List the roles of the six types of membrane proteins. - Exact Answer: Transport, receptors, attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix, intercellular joining, recognition and enzymes Describe the functions of the plasma membrane. - Exact Answer: Mech barrier, selectively permeable, electrochemical gradient, communication, and cell signaling Define selectively permeable and

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electrochemical gradient. - Exact Answer: SP- determines what substances will enter and exit, and how EG- sets up a difference in charge and concentration on either side of the membrane that allows muscle and neuron cells to be excitable Describe the three types of specialized cell junctions in animal cells: tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions. - Exact Answer: Tight- impermeable junctions that prevent molecules from passing through the intercellular space (NO PASSING ) Gap- communicating junction that allows molecules to pass for intercellular communications. (PASSABLE) Desmosomes- anchoring junctions that bind cells and form an internal tension- reducing networks Describe the concept of a concentration gradient and the natural tendencies of molecules. - Exact Answer: -CG- difference in the number of molecules between two regions

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-Tendencies- to spread out from where they are more concentrated to less (high > low) Define active and passive, and classify each specific type of membrane transport into one of these categories. - Exact Answer: Active-(energy/ATP required)- pumps, endo and exo (vesicular transport) Passive- (no energy/no ATP required) simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion (channel/carriers), osmosis Describe and provide examples of molecules using each type of passive process used for membrane transport: simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion with carriers, facilitated diffusion with channels, osmosis. - Exact Answer: SD- substance moves across membrane w/o assistance of transport proteins ex: O2, CO FD carriers- high to low, no energy/ATP - for large molecules, require transport protein ex: glucose FD channels- high>low no ATP/energy, uses ions, ions can be moved either way, requires transport protein ex: water

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Osmosis- occurs when concentration of water is different on two sides of membrane. ex: water Define: aquaporin, tonicity, isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic. Predict the direction of net water movement in a scenario. - Exact Answer: Aquaporin- specific water channels Tonicity- ability of water to alter cell's water volume Isotonic- two solutions have same solute concentration Hypertonic- solution with a higher solute concentration (less water) Hypotonic- solution with a lower solute concentration (more water) Describe and provide examples of molecules using each type of active process used for membrane transport: pumps, endocytosis, and exocytosis. - Exact Answer: Pumps- requires ATP, movement low>high to build up concentration purposely- creates source of potential energy to do work Ex. Sodium Potassium Pump Endo- bulk transport to move many or single macromolecules into cell at one time (vesicles) require ATP Exo- bulk transport to move many or single macromolecules out of cell at one time (vesicles) require ATP

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Define phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and vesicle. - Exact Answer: Phag- cell eating (larger particles) Pino- cell drinking (small particles) Vesicle- surrounds particle for transporting out/into cell Describe the components of early and modern cell theory. - Exact Answer: Early- organisms made of one/more cells, fundamental unit of life, all cells come from preexisting cells Modern- all cells have the same basic chemical compositions, use energy and contain DNA that is duplicated and passed on List the structures common to all cells (both prokaryotes and eukaryotes) - Exact Answer: plasma membrane, cytoplasm, DNA, ribosomes, metabolism and requirement for ATP/energy Define organelle, and describe the advantage to having organelles. - Exact Answer: Organelle- little organ- metabolic machinery of cell; each with a specialized function

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Advantage- cell organelles work together to keep the cell work together in harmony. nucleus chars and function - Exact Answer: control center of the cell containing genetic material (DNA) nucleolus chars and function - Exact Answer: location of ribosomes subunit assembly cytoplasm/cytosol chars and function - Exact Answer: contains organelles and cytosol; site of most cellular activities ribosomes chars and funciton - Exact Answer: location of translation- where amino acids join to form proteins Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum chars and function - Exact Answer: system of 20214260 Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum chars and function - Exact Answer: system of membranous channels providing passageways- no ribosomes,

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manufactures lipids, cholesterol and steroid hormones, detoxifies some drugs and poisons, stores Ca2+ Golgi apparatus chars and function - Exact Answer: Sorts, packages, tags and ships produces of the rough ER (via use of vesicles) makes lysosomes. lysosome chars and function - Exact Answer: contains digestive enzymes that break down worn-out cell structures, food, debris and microorganisms peroxisome chars and function - Exact Answer: contains enzymes that detoxify and neutralize harmful substances like hydrogen peroxide and free radicals mitochondria chars and function - Exact Answer: energy(ATP) producer; site of cellular respiration Centrioles chars and functions - Exact Answer: generate and organize the mitotic spindle during cell division

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cilia chars and function - Exact Answer: short numerous projections; move substance across cell surface flagella chars and functions - Exact Answer: single long projection; propels the cell microvilli chars and function - Exact Answer: extension of cell membrane to increase the surface area (not involved in movement) Describe the structures and functions of micro filaments - Exact Answer: composed of actin proteins; important in muscle contraction; form the cleavage furrow during cell division intermediate filaments structure and function - Exact Answer: rope-like; provide stability; attach to desmosomes; resist mech forces pulling on the cell

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microtubules structure and functions - Exact Answer: compose of tubulin subunits; components of cilia, flagella; maintain cell shape and structure; move organelles.