Counseling and Psychology: Key Concepts and Techniques, Exams of Nursing

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National Counselor Exam Questions and Answers 2024

Convergent Validation ✔✔Refers to times when there is a high correlation between the concept the test is meant to study and OTHER constructs. Bergan's Behavioral Model of Consultation - Four Stages: ✔✔- Problem identification

• Problem analysis
• Plan implementation
• Problem evaluation Consultation is used when counselors would like to function more effectively in individual, group, or community settings. Bergen's model uses a BEHAVIORAL APPROACH that emphasizes the verbal interactions during consultation. Bergan's model also focuses on problem behaviors, their antecedents, and their consequences. Descriptive statistics ✔✔Aims to describe collected data and includes:
• means
• percentages
• standard deviations

• frequency counts. Analysis of variance ✔✔A type of inferential data used to measure the PROBABILITY of an EVENT occurring in the POPULATION. Five Stages of the Racial/Cultural Identity Developmental Model? ✔✔- Conformity
• Dissonance
• Desistance & Immersion
• Introspection
• Integrative awareness. Integrative awareness occurs when the individual can appreciate aspects of both the dominant and minority cultures. Four levels of measurement: ✔✔Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio. Nonparametric statistical measures ✔✔Often used with DESCRIPTIVE DATA and should be used with NOMINAL DATA (numbers that represent a category or quality). Ex: chi-square

The typical range for the STANDARD DEVIATION when calculating a Z-SCORE ✔✔The range for standard deviation of a z-score is - 3.0 to 3.0. For a z-score, the mean is 0 and the standard deviation is 1.0. When the raw score is below the mean, the z-score is negative, and when the raw score is above the mean, the z-score is positive. Why might the t-test be used? ✔✔To determine whether the mean scores of two groups are significantly different from each other This test compares the t value from the first calculation to the t value in the second calculation to find whether the mean scores of the two groups are significantly different from each other. Coefficient of nondetermination ✔✔The coefficient of NONdetermination is the unique variance. To find the coefficient of nondetermination, first find the coefficient of determination by squaring the correlation (.80 x .80 = .64, or 64%). Then subtract this from 100% to find the coefficient of NONdetermination (100% - 64% = 36%).

Standardized scores ✔✔Standardized scores are helpful when comparing several different test scores for the same person, as direct comparisons between different tests are impossible. Standardizing scores allows for continuity and an equality of units. The two most common standardized scores are z-scores and T-scores, both of which are conversions of raw score distributions. Standardized scores express the person's distance from the MEAN, NOT the median, in terms of the standard deviation from that standard score distribution. Kruskal-Wallis test (nonparametric statistic) ✔✔- Used when the researcher has MORE THAN TWO MEAN SCORES on a SINGLE VARIABLE also known as a nonparametric one-way analysis of variance.

• Nonparametric statistics are used when it is uncertain whether the distribution of scores falls along a normal curve or whether the variance of the test sample represents the variance within the general population.

Nonparametric statistical measures ✔✔- Mann-Whitney U test

• Wilcoxen signed-rank test
• Kruskal-Wallis test Nonparametric statistics are used when it is uncertain whether the distribution of scores falls along a normal curve or whether the variance of the test sample represents the variance within the general population. Four steps in the Planning of a Counseling Program ✔✔Conceptualization - > Development - > Implementation - >Evaluation It is important to take orderly and careful steps to ensure that the program is thoughtfully executed. Essential steps in program planning, in order, are conceptualization, which includes examining broader systems and assessment needs; development of goals and objectives of the program; implementation; and evaluation of the program, including whether goals and objectives were met. When you would use a nonparametric test? ✔✔When it is uncertain whether the distribution of scores falls along a normal curve OR whether the variance of the test sample represents the variance within the general population.

Nonparametric statistics are typically used with NOMINAL DATA, when numbers represent a variable's qualities, and ordinal data, when categories have a definitive order. Examples of nonparametric statistical measure: Chi-square, Mann-Whitney U test, Wilcoxen signed-rank test, and Kruskal-Wallis test. The square of the standard deviation is called. ✔✔Variance Refers to the degree to which scores are different from each other. When measuring variability, researchers may use standard deviation (SD) to describe the variability within a distribution of scores. Variance is the square of the standard deviation and is used when conducting statistical analyses. Solomon Four-Group Design is used? ✔✔When you want to determine the effect of a PRETEST. Some researchers use pretests to measure baseline characteristics, traits, or behaviors of test participants. The Solomon four-group design allows researchers to examine the effect of the pretest on the test treatment. The four groups include measurements of whether the pretest and

treatment combined made a difference, whether the pretest alone made a difference, whether the treatment alone made a difference, or whether neither the pretest nor the treatment made a difference. R. K. Coyne developed Four Levels of Group Intervention ✔✔Individual Interpersonal Organization Community Populations ANOVA - one-way analysis of variance ✔✔- Can be used to determine differences between THREE different FORMS of ONE VARIABLE. Cronbach Alpha Coefficient ✔✔Applied when items are nondichotomous, meaning they offer more than two answer options. Kuder-Richardson ✔✔formulas can be used when the test contains dichotomous items, such as true-false questions.

Sensorium ✔✔Client's ability to be aware of the LOCATION, the TIME, and THEIR IDENTITY. The MENTAL STATUS EXAM typically includes appearance & behavior, thought processes, mood & affect, intellectual functioning, and sensorium. Non-random or Non-probability samples ✔✔While most studies use random sampling to conduct tests, some use VOLUNTEERS or SAMPLES OF CONVENIENCE. While these samples are less likely than random samples to yield a normal distribution of scores, these non-random or nonprobability samples can still result in useful data. True variance ✔✔True variance is measured by finding the square of the correlation. True variance and error variance are both important concepts to measure, as researchers want to know whether the test actually measures what it is meant to measure. Construct Validity ✔✔Construct validity, which refers to the degree that a test measures what it is meant to measure.

EX: The SCARED assessment has construct validity because it is regarded as accurately measuring anxiety in children. Additional types of validity include:

• FACE validity, in which the test looks to be valid
• CONTENT validity, in which the test material comes from a certain domain
• PREDICTIVE validity, in which the test makes predictions that are confirmed later. Reality Therapy ✔✔William Glasser developed Reality Therapy, which asserts that INDIVIDUALS ARE IN CHARGE OF THEIR OWN LIVES and therefore DETERMINE THEIR OWN FATE. According to reality therapy, people have FIVE genetically based needs:
• Survival
• Love & Belonging
• Power/Achievement
• Freedom/Independence

• Fun Taking responsibility is a key concept of Reality Therapy. Formative Evaluation ✔✔Formative Evaluation is the process of gathering information about how well a NEW (FORMING) INTERVENTION works, and collects information over a LONGER period of time. Summative Evaluation ✔✔Summative Evaluation is typically a summary of HOW WELL AN INTERVENTION HAS WORKED and is conducted over a SHORTER period of time. Post hoc tests ✔✔Researchers might apply a test AFTER the analysis of variance is calculated (post hoc) if it is unclear as to which mean scores are significantly different from each other. Post hoc tests that may be able to clarify this problem include:
• Scheffe's method,
• Tukey's HSD,
• Newman-Keuls
• Duncan's new multiple range test.

A counselor operates from the viewpoint that clients' difficulties often result from problems with INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS that originate in the FIRST THREE YEARS of life. What theory best matches this counselor's approach? ✔✔OBJECT RELATIONS Theory is based on PSYCHOANALYTIC concepts, including the belief that early childhood is incredibly relevant to how clients operate within relationships in the present day. Object Relations Theories teach that, in the first three years of life, infants have the opportunity to develop significant relationships with primary caretakers that will shape their interactions with people throughout their lives. Aptitude tests ✔✔Aptitude tests measure the CAPACITY OF THE TEST TAKER TO LEARN and are often used as part of JOB APPLICATIONS. These tests measure abstract, verbal, and numerical reasoning. Examples: Differential Aptitude Test (DAT) and the Wonderlic Cognitive Ability Test. Strategic Family Therapy ✔✔Focuses on the POWER and CONTROL expressed through family communication PATTERNS, and techniques are frequently direct suggestions or assignments.

RELABELING is used by counselors who can REFRAME the meaning of a situation. Some Strategic Family Counselors will PRESCRIBE A SYMPTOM or put clients in a THERAPEUTIC DOUBLE BIND as a way of forcing them to either give up the problematic behavior or acknowledge control over it. Emic worldview ✔✔Individuals and groups should be helped using THEIR specific cultural lens. Etic worldviews ✔✔There is a GLOBAL understanding of humanity that can be applied to ALL individuals. WE ARE ALL MORE ALIKE THAN DIFFERENT. Gelatt's FIVE STEP CAREER decision-making process ✔✔Recognize, Collect Data, Examine Outcomes, Attend to Values, Evaluate and Decide. H B Gelatt presents a five-step process for making decisions about careers: recognize the need to make a decision, collect data, examine potential outcomes, attend to your value system, and make a temporary or permanent decision. Later Gelatt research focused on the balance between reason and intuition when making career decisions. Three broad areas of development: ✔✔Physical, Cognitive, and Psychosocial

Kübler-Ross identified five stages of behaviors and feelings that dying persons experience: ✔✔Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, and Acceptance. Traditionally, therapists believed that all grief moves chronologically through these stages, but recent research shows that most people skip or come back to stages throughout the process of grieving. Ego-dystonic behaviors ✔✔Ego-dystonic behaviors are those that the individual considers UNACCEPTABLE. EX: Individuals with panic disorder feel uncomfortable with the physiological symptoms of anxiety that accompany the disorder and are therefore more likely to be motivated to change. Ego-syntonic ✔✔Ego-syntonic individuals like with anorexia nervosa, however, often experience AMBIVALENCE about receiving treatment for the disorder, since the symptoms are somewhat effective at temporarily relieving anxiety about body shape and control. Parametric Statistics ✔✔Used when samples are RANDOMLY drawn from the population and results are distributed along a NORMAL CURVE. (t-test and analysis of variance)

Non-parametric statistics ✔✔Used when data is NOT normally distributed and variances are inconsistent. (Chi-square and the Mann-Whitney U test) OOH - Occupational Outlook Handbook ✔✔Published every other year and offers information about CURRENT SALARIES and PROJECTED TRENDS. This would be the best way for this particular client to narrow down his options for an occupation based on salary, educational requirements, and future job projections. DOT - Dictionary of Occupational Titles ✔✔Offers summaries of about 12,000 occupations. SIGI 3 - System of Interactive Guidance and Information ✔✔A top-of-the-line computer- assisted career guidance system that can supplement the assessments and guidance of career counselors. The World-of-Work map - People, Data, Things, Ideas ✔✔A tool developed by ACT that organizes occupations based on primary tasks related to People, Data, Things, and Ideas.

Which type of group counseling approach typically requires the GROUP LEADER to be the most active? ✔✔REBT - Rationale Emotive Behavior Groups require a highly active and directive group leader, which may be too forceful for some clients. In these groups, the leader CONFRONTS ILLOGICAL THINKING and aims to make constructive changes, leading to a greater acceptance of self. The group leader often assigns homework and encourages ROLE- PLAYING and exercises in self-discipline. When can BIVARIATE TABULAR analysis be used? ✔✔When the value of an IV can PREDICT the value of a DV. When this occurs, researchers typically plot scores along an XY plot graph to illustrate the relationship between variables. Chi-square tests ✔✔Are used when variables have CATEGORICAL rather than numerical value. Donald Super's developmental approach to career counseling STAGES vs. TASKS: ✔✔STAGES: GROWTH - development of capacity & interests EXPLORATION - tentative choices made

ESTABLISHMENT - trial and stabilization MAINTENANCE - adjustment process DECLINE - retirement TASKS: CRYSTALLIZATION- forming a vocational goal SPECIFICATION - moving to a more specific career choice IMPLEMENTATION - entering employment STABILIZATION - performing a job CONSOLIDATION - achieving status & advancing Mark Savickas ✔✔Known for his POSTMODERN approach to CAREER counseling that is based on CONSTRUCTION THEORY, which posits that individuals construct their own reality. Savickas' approach considers the changing nature of the workplace and the move toward FLEXIBLE WORK SCHEDULES and more FREELANCE EMPLOYMENT. What is one advantage of using INTERVAL DATA? ✔✔There is a CONSTANT unit of measurement. Interval scales provide a CONSTANT and CONSISTENT unit of measurement.

With INTERVAL DATA, the numbers on a scale have the same amount of the variable throughout the scale; for instance, degrees on the Fahrenheit temperature scale. The National Counselor Exam is an example of what type of assessment? ✔✔CRITERION- Referenced - tests that compare a test taker to some objective set of criteria, such as a CUT-OFF SCORE IPSATIVELY interpreted tests compare the test results with the test taker's results on other parts of the same assessment. NORM-referenced assessments compare test takers to others who have taken the same test, so how much a test taker knows is not as important as how the test taker compares with others. "Positive Uncertainty" is a model of career decision-making associated most closely with whom? ✔✔H B Gelatt focused on the balance between REASON and INTUITION when making career decisions and is termed "Positive Uncertainty." This is related to Gelatt's earlier five-step process for making decisions about careers, which included the need to consider objective information while also attending to one's value system.

Which test can be used to see how reliable a test would have been had it NOT been divided? ✔✔Sometimes it is useful to measure the internal consistency of a study by splitting the test into two halves. This reduces the test's measured reliability, so researchers may use the SPEARMAN- BROWN FORMULA to calculate the reliability of the test IF IT HAD NOT been split in two. Who was a developmental psychologist known for the belief that children learn best through INTERACTIONS with others? ✔✔Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist and developmental theorist known for his theory of cognitive development. His theory is based on the belief that children learn best through interactions with others, and it breaks down human development into sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages. In Narrative Career Counseling, the narrator of the client's story is referred to as... ✔✔the Agent Multimodal Therapy is an example of... ✔✔Technical Eclecticism Allows the use of the LURIA & Caltell/Horn/Carroll approach to interpret subtests... ✔✔Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children

FERPA affects... ✔✔Any school that receives federal funding Stratified ✔✔A sample THAT IS proportionate to the make-up of a community Scaling questions are most commonly used in... ✔✔Solution-focused Brief Counseling VALUE INVENTORIES assist in identifying and prioritizing their... ✔✔Work values Roe's Occupational Classification System comprises EIGHT that classify the primary focus in each occupation and SIX. ✔✔Groups (eight) Levels (six) Language Development Theories: ✔✔- Learning Theory Approach

• Nativist Approach
• Interactionist Approach The scale measures multiple dimensions of an ATTITUDE by employing a paired comparison method. ✔✔Thurstone Scale

Interval Scale of Data ✔✔Has equivalent units of measurement, BUT DOES NOT have an absolute zero point. EX: temperature (Farenheit), temperature (Celcius), pH, SAT score (200-800), credit score (300- 850). Stress Inoculation Training (CBT) technique was developed by: ✔✔Meichenbaum The reinforcement schedule MOST RESISTANT to extinction: ✔✔Variable Ratio In operant conditioning, a variable-ratio schedule is a schedule of reinforcement where a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. EX: Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule. Sharif vs. NY Education Department ✔✔School counselors must provide tests in student's primary language

Systematic sampling ✔✔Sampling refers to selecting every Nth element of a population. The body's incapacity to metabolize fatty-substances; ✔✔Tay-sachs Disease Components of sexual identity: ✔✔- Biological make-up

• Sexual orientation
• Gender roles (Not cognitions) Who developed the Career Maturity Inventory and endorsed comprehensive career counseling. ✔✔John Crites developed first intelligence test. later revised the scale ✔✔Alfred Binet (first developed) Lewis Terman (later revised) Behavioristic Learning Theories of human development are generally considered to be... ✔✔Proacitve Theories

A component of the trustworthiness that refers to the believability of qualitative research findings... ✔✔Credibility A is typically an objective third party in conflict resolution. ✔✔Arbitrator Statistical assumptions in Inferential Statistics: ✔✔- A dependent variable is normally distributed

• A ratio scale of measurement is used
• An interval scale of measurement is used (NOT an independent variable is normally distributed.) Arnold Lazarus is responsible for the development of: ✔✔Multimodal Therapy Most well-known intelligent test: ✔✔Stanford-Binet Most widely used intelligent test: ✔✔Wechsler scale

help clients with disabilities live more independently and find employment. ✔✔Rehabilitation Counselor Career Transitions Inventory ✔✔Designed to assess clients' perceptions of psychological resources available as they go through career change "A Skeleton Key" ✔✔Solution-focused Brief Counseling technique that can be used to help all clients, no matter what presenting problem. Career Assessments that use Holland's SIX Personality Types: ✔✔- Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI)

• Self-directed Search (SDS)
• Strong Interest Inventory (SII) Classical Conditioning was developed by... ✔✔Ivan Pavlov is based on biology and includes societal expectations of behavior. ✔✔Sex roles = biology Gender roles = societal expectation

IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) ✔✔Provides a free appropriate public education for students with disabilities (under 3 years-old). Group members' personal goals are generally. ✔✔overt Judging someone's worth by how closely they resemble European Americans is termed: ✔✔colorism Accreditation is not: ✔✔Involuntary In group work, confidentiality is... ✔✔the ethical requirement of group leaders but not group members. The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 was NOT responsible for... ✔✔enforcing workplace safety nor health standards. Ethical principles that counselors are REQUIRED to follow are called. ✔✔Mandatory ethics

founded one of the first psychological laboratories to conduct experimental research. ✔✔William Wundt Erikson's Psychosocial Developmental Theory is an example of: ✔✔Discontinuous, Active Theory Freud Types of Consciousness: ✔✔- Preconscious

• Conscious
• Unconscious (NOT subconscious!) Critical reviews of Assessment Tests publication: ✔✔Mental Measurements Yearbook Individual Psychology core concept: ✔✔Social Interest Kurt Lewen Theory Z = ✔✔Laissez-fair leadership style