National Counselor Examination Study Guide: Key Concepts and Theories, Exams of Nursing

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National Counselor Examination

Study Guide 2024 2025

Using motivation from 'within' is known as ______________ A. Inside motivation B. Interior motivation C. Intrinsic motivation D. Idealistic motivation - answer -C. Intrinsic motivation Which of the following is not an example of extrinsic motivation? A. Employee performance improves when wages are increased B. A sleep apnea patient follows a strict sleep hygiene plan C. Children finish a task more quickly if they are promised candy D. A student studies more on a test to make the highest grade in the class - answer -B. A sleep apnea patient follows a strict sleep hygiene plan Which of the following socioeconomic factor could affect the outcome of therapeutic counseling? Choose all that apply. A. Lack of transportation CCHT

B. Lack of intrinsic motivation C. Lack of positive cultural norms for entering therapy D. None of the above - answer -A. Lack of transportation C. Lack of positive cultural norms for entering therapy What is the meaning of transference/countertransference relationships? Choose all that apply. A. A client transferring their relationship with another onto the therapist B. The therapist transferring their relationship with another onto the client C. Transferring the blame or outcome of behavior onto someone else D. None of the above - answer -A. A client transferring their relationship with another onto the therapist B. The therapist transferring their relationship with another onto the client What is one instance that might cause a clinician to break the strong code of client confidentiality? A. Feeling the need to talk B. Duty to warn C. When the therapist is going on vacation D. All of the above - answer -B. Duty to warn Behavior Theory - answer -comes from the idea that all behaviors are learned and acquired through a process known as conditioning

stimuli? - answer -Watson - he believed that all human beings could change their behavior through classical or operant conditioning. Who developed the following schedules of reinforcement: Continuous reinforcement, partial reinforcement (fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval) - answer -B.F. Skinner - behavioral theorist Continuous reinforcement schedule - answer -reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs Partial reinforcement schedule - answer -reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement fixed ratio schedule - answer -a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a predetermined number of responses What strength of reinforcement does fixed ratio schedule produce? - answer -a high, steady rate of responses. What schedule of reinforcement is: giving a subject a piece of candy after they answer five questions correctly - answer -Fixed ratio variable-ratio schedule - answer -a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

What strength of reinforcement does variable-ratio schedule produce? - answer -High, steady rate of responding What schedule of reinforcement is: a slot machine - answer -variable-ratio fixed-interval schedule - answer -a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed What schedule of reinforcement is: a subject being rewarded after two minutes of activity and then after each two minutes of activity? - answer - fixed-interval variable-interval schedule - answer -a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals What schedule of reinforcement is: rewarding a subject after one minute of activity, three minutes of activity, six minutes of activity, and so on... - answer -variable-interval In operant conditioning, reinforcement ______________ behavior and punishment _______________ behavior. - answer -Increases, Decreases What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement? - answer -Positive reinforcement adds a stimulus, negative reinforcement either removes a noxious stimuli (buckling seatbelt to get rid of beeping) or behavior avoids noxious stimulus (studying to avoid bad grades)

C. Experiential D. Narrative - answer -C. Experiential A counselor works closely with clients from a culture different from hers in an attempt to understand their perspectives - is an example of what type of worldview? - answer -Emic Facts about social justice counseling: - answer -- it seeks a balance of power and resources

• it addresses issues of unequal power
• it has led to ACA identifying advocacy competencies for counselors what is shaping in operant conditioning? - answer -a way of adding behaviors to a persons repertoire -used when target behavior does not yet exist -what is reinforced is an approximation of the target behavior, the behavior you want to shape. Thorndike is best known for what theory? - answer -law of effect - responses that are immediately positively reinforced are more likely to occur again in the future. -also, responses that are immediately negatively reinforced are are less likely to occur in the future.

Cognitive theories of psychology focus on what? - answer -a persons thought processes, such as motivation, problem solving, decision-making, thinking, and attention. Aaron Beck is what kind of theorist?? - answer -Cognitive -believed people had automatic thoughts which are spontaneous negative cognitive distortions. -negative thoughts affect a persons behavior. -regardless of disorder a person is experiencing - he believed if negative thoughts could be identified, they could be evaluated and replaced - which would then change the response or behavior Filtering, Polarized thinking, Overgeneralization, Catastrophizing, Personalization, Control Fallacies, Blaming, Shoulds, Emotional Reasoning, and Always being right - are examples of what? - answer - Cognitive Distortions Filtering - answer -negative details of a situation are magnified and all positive details of the situation are deleted. The person then dwells on the negative of the situation. Polarized thinking - answer -Situations, People or places are either "all or nothing". For example, a person either loves or hates others, or perceives situations as "the best ever" or "the worst ever" Overgeneralization - answer -Based on one experience or little information, a person draws a conclusion. For example if a person got into a car

example, a thought might be, " I don't feel like working today, so I must be depressed" Always being right - answer -A person's need to go to all lengths to prove themselves right, even when evidence suggests otherwise Mindfulness cognitive therapy is mostly used for what? - answer -medical and emotional issues Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development - answer -sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operations, and formal operations sensorimotor stage - answer -in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities Preoperational stage - answer -in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic Concrete Operational - answer -in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events. Thinking still is egocentric formal operational - answer -in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (11 years and older) during which people begin to think

logically about abstract concepts. Can formulate ideas regarding morals and ethics, social situations, political situations, and future planning. Schema - answer -a way of mentally representing the world, such as a belief or an expectation, that can influence perception of persons, objects, and situations What are the three ways human beings acquire schemas? - answer - Assimilation, Accommodation, equilibration Assimilation - answer -adding to an existing schema as new stimuli or situations are experienced Accommodation - answer -The process of changing our current schema, or the development of an entirely new schema Equilibration - answer -The balance between assimilation and accommodation. Developmental Theories - answer -focus on the growth and development of humans at certain ages across the lifespan. They attempt to explain how a person develops emotionally or psychologically. Some theories believe that the stages are continuous, while others feel they are discontinuous. What does it mean if one believes stages of development are discontinuous? - answer -a human being could not move past a developmental stage until the issue or crisis was resolved.

phallic/yonic stage - answer -Freud's third stage of psychosexual development (3 - 6 years) A child focuses on their own genitalia. The child realizes there are differences between males and females. phallic/yonic stage fixation - answer -Freud believed that conflict that occurs in this stage that he called the oedipus complex, where he felt that a child subconsciously longs for the attention of their parent of the opposite sex. This stage is still considered controversial in the psychological world. Latent Stage - answer -Freud's fourth stage of psychosexual development (6 years - puberty) This is a time where a child may continue to work towards resolution of the previous stages, or is fairly dormant. Genital Stage - answer -Freud's 5th and last stage of personality development (puberty through adulthood - 12+) a person can identify their sexual urges but is able to delay gratification. A person is working on or has established the ability to obtain and maintain relationships that are outside sexual desires as well as friendships. Freud's theory of the human psyche includes: - answer -id, ego, superego Id - answer -Based on instinct, impulsivity and pleasure. The id demands immediate gratification. The id is not in touch with reality or logic. Ego - answer -This part of the psyche attempts to balance the needs of the id and the needs of the superego. The ego is reality-based.

Superego - answer -This part of the psyche is based on morals and ethics. The superego strives to always do the right thing or not act at all. Freuds thoughts about conscious mind, subconscious mind, and the unconscious mind - answer -conscious mind - very aware of your thoughts, memories, and actions subconscious - just below the conscious mind, info should be able to be retrieved at this level but there's something blocking it unconscious mind - where thoughts, feelings or information goes when your conscious can not cope with the information, this can be because it is too traumatic for the psyche to recall Erik Erikson's focus - answer -on conflicts that take place within the ego, while freud focused on conflict between the id and ego Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development - answer -Eight stages in which a healthy developing individual should pass through from infancy to late adulthood. In each stage the person confronts and hopefully masters new challenges. Each stage builds on the successful completion of earlier stages (Trust vs Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame, Initiative vs. Guilt, Ego Identity vs Role Confusion, Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs Stagnation, Ego Integrity vs Despair) Hope: Trust vs. Mistrust - answer -(Infants, 0 - 1 year)

Purpose: Initiative vs. Guilt - answer -(Preschool, 4 - 6 years) The third stage of Erik Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development where initiative adds to autonomy the quality of undertaking, planning and attacking a task for the sake of being active and on the move. learning basic skills and principles of physics - things fall down, not up. round things roll, zip pants, tie shoes. Wants to complete his own actions for a purpose Guilt is confusing - may feel guilty over things that logically should not cause guilt. Competence: Industry vs. Inferiority - answer -(Childhood, 7 - 12 years) The fourth stage of Erik Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development where the aim to bring a productive situation to completion gradually supersedes the whims and wishes of play. Fidelity: Identity vs. Role Confusion - answer -(Adolescents, 13 - 19 years) The fifth stage of Erik Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development where the adolescent is newly concerned with how they appear to others. Search for meaning for oneself, as evidenced in the promise of a career. In later stages of adolescence child develops sense of sexual identity. Love: Intimacy vs. Isolation - answer -(Young Adults, 20 to 34 years)

The sixth stage of Erik Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development where Erikson believes people are sometimes isolated due to intimacy We are afraid of rejections such as being turned down or our partners breaking up with us. Care: Generativity vs. Stagnation - answer -(Middle Adulthood, 35 - 65 years) The seventh stage of Erik Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial DevelopmentThe concern of establishing and guiding the next generation. Socially valued work and disciplines are expressions of generativity. Simply having children does not in itself achieve generativity. During middle age, the primary developmental task is is one of contributing to society and helping to guide future generations. Wisdom: Ego Integrity vs. Despair - answer -(Seniors, 65+) The eighth stage of Erik Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development - Main Question: "Have I lived a full life?" Humanistic Psychology - answer -focuses on the overall good of human beings instead of the negativity or mental illness of the individual. Believes that all people are innately good. Stresses the importance of an individuals potential.

Horneys List of Neurotic Needs - answer -Believed neurosis was a result of anxiety caused by interpersonal relationships 10 neurotic needs classed into three broad categories -needs that move you towards others -needs that move you away from others -needs that move you against others Big Five Dimensions of Personality - answer -The proposed five basic dimensions of personality Openness to experience Conscientiousness - thoughtfulness, good impulse control, goal-directed behaviors Extraversion Agreeableness - altruism Neuroticism - those high in this trait tend to experience emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness, irritability and sadness Borderline Personality Theory - answer -Marsha Linehan - Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT) - believes disorder is developed due to environmental situations that occur through childhood - called this the Invalidating Environment - person who is emotionally vulnerable has an excessive autonomic nervous system response to stress - level of distress

causes an irrational behavioral and emotional response "emotional dysregulation" 4 key skills trained in DBT: - answer --core mindfulness skills -interpersonal effectiveness skills -emotion modulation skills -distress tolerance skills David Kolb - answer -has one of best known models of learning styles - he believed that individual learning styles evolve from personal genetics, as well as the environment. David Kolbys identified 4 learning styles: - answer -The converger - high ability in abstract conceptualization and active experimentation the diverger - high ability in concrete experience and reflective observation the assimilator - high ability in abstract conceptualization and reflective observation the accommodator - high ability in concrete experience and active experimentation Charles Spearman - answer -creator of "g-factor", or general intelligence, belief that intelligence could be measured and scored