Study Notes on Psychology and Counseling Concepts, Exams of Career Counseling

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Milton H. Erickson - correct answer associated with brief psychotherapy and innovative techniques in hypnosis Jean Piaget - correct answer leading name in cognitive development in children; developed a four stage model that remains the same for any culture although the age of the individual could vary; structuralist; his findings were often derived from observing his own children; felt teachers should lecture less, as children in concrete operations learn best via their own actions and experimentation with peers; genetic epistemologist Erik Erikson - correct answer an ego psychologist who developed a psychosocial theory that includes the whole lifespan and focuses on the resolution of psychosocial crises; stages are described using bipolar or opposing tendencies; theory is epigenetic in nature; the individual does not totally succeed or fail, but rather leans toward a given alternative; a maturationist; believed each developmental stage needs to be resolved before an individual could move on to the next stage Jay Haley - correct answer known for his work in strategic and

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problem solving therapy, often utilizing the technique of paradox Arnold Lazarus - correct answer a pioneer in the behavior therapy movement, especially in regard to the use of systematic desensitization; his approach to counseling is multimodal, eclectic, and holistic; BASIC-ID; worked closely with Joseph Wolpe William Perry - correct answer known for his ideas related to adult cognitive development, especially college students; Perry stresses dualistic thinking common to teens Dualistic thinking - correct answer things are conceptualized as good or bad or right and wrong; common to teens; William Perry Relativistic thinking - correct answer ability to perceive that not everything is right or wrong, but an answer can exist relative to a specific situation; there is more than one way to view the world; adulthood

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Robert Kegan - correct answer adult cognitive development; his model stresses interpersonal development - a constructive model of development, meaning that individuals construct reality throughout the lifespan; encourages meaning making; speaks of a holding environment in counseling in which the client can make meaning in the face of a crisis and can find new direction; Six Stages of Lifespan Development: incorporative, impulsive, imperial, interpersonal, institutional, interindividual Alfred Binet - correct answer created the first intelligence test with Theodore Simon; created a 30-question test with school- related items of increased difficult; used his own daughters as test subjects in order to investigate mental processes; cited as one of the pioneers in projective testing based on his work with inkblots; created the first IQ test around 1905 to discriminate normal from retarded Parisian children so that mentally retarded children could be taught separately t test (aka Two-groups or two-randomized-gruops research design) - correct answer a parametric statistical test used in formal experiments to determine whether there is a significant difference between two groups (i.e., two means); utilized

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to ascertain if the means of the groups are significantly different from each other; when using, the groups should be normally distributed; a test of significance; simplistic form of the analysis of variance (ANOVA); when computed, it yields a t value which is then compared to a t table and if the t value obtained statistically is lower than the t value (aka critical t) in the table, then you accept the null hypothesis; you computation must exceed the number cited in the table in order to reject null Conservation - correct answer the notion that a substance's mass, weight, and volume (in the order mastered - MWV) remain the same even if it changes shape; Piaget's term; mastered during the concrete operations stage Symbolic schema/mental processes - correct answer allows language and symbolism in play to occur (i.e., a milk carton can easily become a spaceship); a cognitive structure that grows with life experience; Piaget's theory Schema - correct answer the child's current cognitive structures; a system which permits the child to test out things in the physical world and process new information

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Lev Vygotsky - correct answer disagreed with Piaget's notion that developmental stages take place naturally - insisted that the stages unfold due to educational intervention; pioneered the zone of proximal development Lawrence Kohlberg - correct answer leading theorist in moral development; theory is epigenetic in nature; theory has 3 levels of moral development each with 2 stages that applies to all people Abraham Maslow - correct answer a humanistic psychologist famous for his hierarchy of needs (survival, security, safety, love, self- esteem, self-actualization) in which the lower-order needs must be fulfilled before the individual can be concerned with higher-order needs; to research the dilemma of self- actualization, he interviewed the best people he could find who escaped "the psychology of the average;" rejected analytic psychology and behaviorism; coined the term, positive psychology; theory is epigenetic in nature Epigenetic - correct answer biological term borrowed from embryology; states that each stage emerges from the one before it, the process follows a given order and is systematic

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John B. Watson - correct answer father of American behaviorism; demonstrated that a phobic reaction was learned through his experiment with Little Albert Behaviorism - correct answer if it can't be measured, it doesn't exist; tend to emphasize the power of environment; Key figures: Skinner, Watson, Wolpe, Krumboltz, Salter, Lazarus; rivals of analysts Reversibility - correct answer one can undo an action, hence an object can return to its initial shape; mastered in concrete operations Egocentrism - correct answer the child cannot view the world from the vantage point of someone else; occurs in the preoperational stage The Heinz Story - correct answer one method used by Kohlberg to assess the level and stage of moral development in an individual; the individual's reason for the decision (rather

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than the decision itself) could be used to assess moral development Carl G. Jung - correct answer father of analytic psychology; anima and animus; MBTI and GZTS were based on his work; collective unconscious - all humans have collected universal inherited, unconscious neural patterns; introversion (person is his or her own primary source of pleasure) and extroversion (tendency to find satisfaction and pleasure in other people) Sigmund Freud - correct answer father of psychoanalysis - the most comprehensive theory of personality and therapy ever devised; structural theory: id, ego, superego; believed morality developed from the superego; 5 psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital - if a child is severely traumatized he or she may become fixated at a given psychosexual stage; believed each developmental stage needed to be resolved before an individual could move on to the next stage; a maturationist; terms: eros, thanatos, manifest & latent content; most significant theorist in the entire history of psychology, but many aspects of his theory are difficult to test from a scientific standpoint; his most influential work was a book called The Interpretation of Dreams; worked with Jung and Adler

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Menninger Clinic in Kansas - correct answer a traditional psychoanalytic foothold as well as the site of landmark work in the area of biofeedback Biofeedback - correct answer a technique utilized to help individuals learn to control bodily processes (autonomic responses), such as blood pressure, pulse rate, or hand temperature, more effectively; hooking the client to a sophisticated electronic device that provides biological feedback; devices include a mirror and a scale; Menninger Clinic in Kansas Martin Seligman - correct answer popularized by learned helplessness syndrome Positive psychology - correct answer the study of human strengths such as joy, wisdom, altruism, the ability to love, and happiness Alfred Adler - correct answer the founder of individual psychology which stresses the inferiority complex and organ inferiority; first therapist to rely on paradox; his work has been classified as a preface to the group movement -

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"man's problems and conflicts are recognized in their social nature" Preconventional level - correct answer Kohlberg's level of morality where the child responds to consequences and where reward and punishment greatly influence the behavior; stages: punishment & obedience and mutual benefit Conventional level - correct answer Kohlberg's level of morality where the individual wants to meet the standards of the family, society, and even the nation; the individual wishes to conform to the roles in society and live up to society's expectations so that authority and social order can prevail; stages: interpersonal expectations & law-and- order Postconventional level - correct answer Kohlberg's level of morality also known as self-accepted morality. A person who reaches this level is concerned with universal, ethical principles of justice, dignity, and equality of human rights; many people never reach this level; stages: legal principles & universal moral principles

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Harry Stack Sullivan - correct answer postulated the stages of infancy, childhood, the juvenile era, preadolescence, early adolescence, and late adolescence; his theory is known as the psychiatry of interpersonal relations Psychiatry of Interpersonal Relations - correct answer theory that is similar to Erikson's in that biological determination is seen as less important than interpersonal issues and the sociocultural demands of society; Harry Stack Sullivan's theory Zone of proximal development - correct answer describes the difference between a child's performance without a teacher versus that which he or she is capable of with an instructor; Lev Vygotsky Maturation theory (aka maturation hypothesis) - correct answer suggests that behavior is guided exclusively via heredity factors, but that certain behaviors will not manifest themselves until the necessary stimuli are present in the environment; suggests that the individual's neural development must be at a certain level of maturity for the behavior to unfold; ex: Freud, Erikson, Gesell

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A counselor who believes in this concept strives to unleash inborn abilities, instincts, and drives. The client's childhood and the past are seen as important therapeutic topics. John Bowlby - correct answer saw bonding and attachment as having survival value, or what is often called adaptive significance; insisted that in order to lead a normal social life the child must bond with an adult before the age of 3. If the bond is severed at an early age, it is known as "object loss," and this is said to be the breeding ground for abnormal behavior, or what is often called psychopathology; asserted that conduct disorders and other forms of psychopathology can result from inadequate attachment and bonding in early childhood; felt that mothers should be the primary caretakers, while father's role is to support the mother emotionally rather than nurturing the child himself - most counselors would not agree with this idea today although it was popular in the 1950s Arnold Gesell - correct answer a pioneer in terms of using a one-way mirror for observing children; feel that development is primarily determined via genetics/heredity. Hence, a child must be ready before he or she can accept a certain level of education (e.g., kindergarten)

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Object loss - correct answer If the bond between a child and adult is severed at an early age; said to be the breeding ground for abnormal behavior, or what is often called psychopathology; goes from protest to despair to detachment Adaptive significance - correct answer having survival value Symbiosis - correct answer child's absolute dependence on the female caretaker; difficulties result in adult psychosis; coined by Mahler Generativity - correct answer the ability to be productive and happy by looking outside one's self and being concerned with other people; part of one of Erikson's stages Harry Harlow - correct answer believed that attachment was an innate tendency and not one which is learned; researcher who is well known for his work with maternal deprivation and isolation in rhesus monkeys - Monkeys placed in isolation developed autistic abnormal behavior. When these

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monkeys were placed in cages with normally reared monkeys some remission of dysfunctional behavior was noted. The baby monkey was more likely to cling to a terry cloth mother surrogate than a wire surrogate mother. - found that "contact comfort" is important in the development of infant's attachment to his or her mother; in humans the parents act as a "releaser stimulus" to elicit relief from hunger and tension through holding; frightened monkeys raised via cloth and wire mothers ran over and clung to the cloth and wire surrogate mothers Rene Spitz - correct answer noted that children reared in impersonal institutions (and hence experienced maternal deprivation between the sixth and eighth month of life) cried more, experienced difficulty sleeping, and had more health- related difficulties - called anaclitic depression. These infants would ultimately experience great difficulty forming close relationships. Maccoby and Jacklin - correct answer reviewed the literature and found very few differences that could be attributed to genetics and biological factors; found that the major impetus for sex- role differences may come from child-rearing patterns rather than bodily chemistry; according to their research, in general, girls possess better verbal skills than boys and, in general, boys posses better visual-perceptual skills and are more active and aggressive than girls

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(attributed to androgen hormone - one of the behavioral differences) Eros - correct answer the Freudian concept of the life instinct; self-preservation Thanatos - correct answer the Freudian concept of self-destructive death instinct Manifest content - correct answer describes the dream material as it is presented to the dreamer; psychoanalytic term Latent content - correct answer refers to the hidden meaning of the dream; seen as far more important by Freudians Stanley Coopersmith - correct answer found that child-rearing methods seem to have a tremendous impact on self-esteem; the findings of his study indicated that children with high self-esteem were punished just as often as kids with low self-esteem. The children with high self-esteem, however, were provided with a clear understanding of what was morally

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right and wrong. This was not usually the case in children with low self-esteem. When the child with high self- esteem was punished the emphasis was on the behavior being bad and not the child. Parents of children with high self-esteem were more democratic in the sense that they would listen to the child's arguments and then explain the purpose of the rules.; study utilized middle-class boys, ages 10- Nature - correct answer refers to heredity and genetic makeup Nurture - correct answer refers to the influence of the environment on development B. F. Skinner - correct answer the prime mover in the behavioristic psychology movement; operant conditioning/instrumental learning; his reinforcement theory elaborated on Arnold Lazarus's concept of the BASIC ID used in the multimodal therapeutic approach that is eclectic and holistic Cephalocaudal - correct answer development is head to foot - the head of the fetus develops earlier than the legs; refers to bodily proportions between the head and tail

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Heredity - correct answer assumes the normal person has 23 pairs of chromosomes; assumes that heredity characteristics are transmitted by chromosomes; assumes genes composed of DNA hold a genetic code Heritability - correct answer the portion of a trait that can be explained via genetic factors Oedipus complex - correct answer the stage in which fantasies of sexual relations with the opposite-sex parent occurs; the boy's secret wish to marry his mother, paired with rage toward his father; child realizes that retaliation would result if he would act on these impulses. The child thus strives for identification with the parent of the same sex to achieve vicarious sexual satisfaction; occurs during the phallic stage (ages 3-5); most controversial part of Freud's theory Electra complex - correct answer the female child fantasizes about sexual relationship with the parent of the opposite sex; this creates tension since this is generally not possible; the child is said to have a fantasy in which he or she wishes

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to kill the parent of the opposite sex; Freud went on to hypothesize that eventually the child identifies with the parent of the same sex. This leads to internalization of parental values, and thus the conscience or superego is born. Visual cliff - correct answer a device which utilizes a glass sheet which stimulates a drop-off; developed by Gibson; infants will not attempt to cross the drop-off, thus indicating that depth perception in humans is inherent Stranger anxiety - correct answer the child beings to be able to discriminate a familiar person from a person who is unknown; develops by approximately 8 months of age Empiricism (aka associationism) - correct answer theorists who believe that development merely consists of quantitative changes; according to this theory, scientists can learn only from objective facts; adheres to the principle that experience is the source for acquiring knowledge; the forerunner of behaviorism; the empiricist view of development is behavioristic - value statistical studies and emphasize the role of the environment

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John Locke - correct answer his philosophy is the foundation of empiricism Organismic theorists - correct answer do not believe in a mind-body distinction; believe the development consists of qualitative changes; believe change can be internal; opposing view to empiricism; feel individual's actions are more important than the environment in terms of one's development; term has been used to describe Gestalt psychologists who emphasize a holistic model Object permanence - correct answer a child who is beyond approx. 8 months of age will search for an object that is no longer in sight (e.g., huddle be hid a parent's back or under a blanket); the child learned that objects have an existence even when the child is not interacting with them; developed during the sensorimotor stage; representational thought is needed to master; child learns the concept of time and causality Fixation - correct answer implies that the individual is unable to go from one developmental stage to the next. The person

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literally becomes stuck in a stage where he or she feels safe. Therefore, when life becomes too traumatic, emotional development can come to a screeching halt, although physical and cognitive processes may continue at a normal pace. Instincts - correct answer innate behaviors that do not need to be practiced or learned; not learned behavioral responses Instinctual - correct answer behavior that manifests itself in all normal members of a given species Ethology - correct answer field research utilizing animals; the study of animals' behavior in their natural environment; developed by European zoologists who tried to explain behavior using Darwinian theory; associated with the work of Konrad Lorenz Comparative psychology - correct answer refers to laboratory research using animals and attempts to generalize the findings to humans

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Konrad Lorenz - correct answer best known for his work on the process of imprinting and the principle of critical periods; study of ethology; compared humans to the wolf or baboon and claimed that we are naturally aggressive - believed aggressiveness is part of our evolution and was necessary for survival. The solution is for us to utilize catharsis and get our anger out, using methods such as competitive sports. Imprinting - correct answer an instinctual behavior in goslings and other animals in which the infant instinctively follows the first moving object it encounters, which is usually the mother; illustrates the principal of critical periods; an instinct in which a newborn will follow a moving object; Konrad Lorenz Critical period - correct answer states that certain behaviors must be learned at an early time in the animal's development; otherwise, the behaviors will never be learned at all; associated with imprinting and Konrad Lorenz; when an organism is susceptible to a specific developmental process; marks the importune of heredity and environment on development

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Centration - correct answer characterized by focusing on a key feature of a given object while not noticing the rest of it (i.e., a child who focuses exclusively on a clown's red nose but ignores his or her other features); occurs in the preoperational stage Deductive thinking/processes - correct answer allow an individual to apply general reasoning to specific situations; occurs in formal operations stage William Glasser - correct answer father of reality therapy Epistemology - correct answer branch of philosophy that attempts to examine how we know what we know; Piaget R. J. Havinghurst - correct answer proposed developmental tasks for infancy and early childhood (e.g., learning to walk or eat solid foods); tasks for middle childhood, ages 6-12 years (e.g., learning to get along with peers or developing a conscience); tasks of adolescence, ages 12-18 years (e.g., preparing for marriage and economic career); tasks of early adulthood, ages 19-30 (e.g., selecting a mate and

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starting a family); tasks of middle age, ages 30-60 (e.g., assisting teenage children to become responsible adults and developing leisure-time activities); and tasks of later maturity, age 60 and beyond (e.g., dealing with the death of a spouse and adjusting to retirement) Jane Loevinger - correct answer stage theorist who focused on ego development via seven stages and two transitions, the highest level being integrated (being similar to Maslow's self-actualized individual or Kohlberg's self-accepted universal principles stage) Primal scene - correct answer a psychoanalytic concept that suggests that a young child witnesses his parents having sexual intercourse or is seduced by a parent. The incident, whether real or imagined, is said to provide impetus for later neuroses Preconscious (aka foreconscious) - correct answer material not conscious but can be recalled without the use of special psychoanalytic techniques; deeper than the conscious but not as deep as the unconscious

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Animism - correct answer occurs when a child acts as if nonliving objects have lifelike abilities and tendencies; related to Piaget's pre operational stage Anima - correct answer represents the female characteristics of the personality; Jung; an archetype - inherited unconscious factor Animus - correct answer represents the male characteristics of personality; Jung; an archetype - inherited unconscious facto Wish fulfillment - correct answer a Freudian notion that dreams and slips of the tongue are actually wish fulfillments Ego identity - correct answer when an adolescent is able to integrate all his or her previous roles into a single self-concept; an inability to accomplish Erikson's task results in role confusion, which is known as identity crisis

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Frank Parsons - correct answer the father of vocational guidance; set up centers to help individuals in search of work; in his book, Choosing a Vocation, he stressed a careful self-analysis conducted under guidance and then put down on paper to determine your personal traits. The traits could then be matched to occupations using advice from individuals who had made a careful study of men and vocations of the conditions of success --> trait-and-factor theory; his work fueled secondary school counseling and guidance in the early 1900s; some historians insist that the profession of counseling officially began when he founded the Vocational Guidance Bureau of Boston and published the book Choosing a Vocation in 1909; considered the first pioneer to focus heavily on sociocultural issues Daniel J. Levinson - correct answer his research found that 80% of the men in the study experienced moderate to severe midlife crises and an "age 30 crisis" occurs in men when they feel it will soon be too late to make later changes; found that adult developmental transitions in white-collar and blue-collar men seemed to be relatively universal; subsequent research indicates that his theory of a midlife crisis for men or for women does not really hold water Psychosis - correct answer a break from reality that can include hallucinations, delusions, and thought disorders

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Senile psychosis - correct answer psychosis brought on via old age; loss of memory Anxiety - correct answer refers to fear, dread, or apprehension without being able to pinpoint the exact reason for the feeling; contrast to a phobia; client is unaware of the source of the fear Phobia - correct answer the client can pinpoint the cause or source of fear (known fear) Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM) - correct answer a manual used to classify and label mental disorders so that all mental health practitioners will mean roughly the same thing (i.e., regarding symptomatology, etc.) when they classify a client; primary nosological guide Nosology - correct answer the branch of medicine which concerns itself with the classification of disease