Download NEW SCIE 326 MIDTERM EXAM 3 VERSIONS FINAL PRACTICE QUESTIONS, EXAM TESTBANK AND LATEST UP and more Exams Science education in PDF only on Docsity!
SCIEg 326 gEXAMgQUESTIONSgANDgCORRECTgANSWERSg100%gVERIFIEDg(MID
TERM+FINAL)
- SCIE326g Finalg Studyg Questions
- SCIEg 326 gMIDTERM SCIE326g Finalg Studyg Questions Whatgisgthegprinciplegofgnon-contradiction?g-gAnswergThegprinciplegofgnon- contradictiongsaysgthatgeverygstatementgthatginvolvesgagcontradictiongisgtogbegjudgedgasg false,gandgeverygstatementgthatgisgthegnegationgofgagfalsehoodgisgtogbegjudgedgasgtrue. Givegangexamplegthatgillustratesgtheglawgofgnon-contradiction.g- gAnswergThegsentenceg"Allgtrianglesghavegfourgsides"gisgfalse,gsincegitgassertsgthegcontradi ctiong3=4.gThegnegationgofgthisgsentence,g"Nogtriangleghasgfourgsides",gisgnecessarilygtru e. Howgdoesgthegprinciplegofgnon-contradictiongworkgingsciencegreasoning?g- gAnswergAgcontradictiongappearinggingangargumentgsignifiesgthatgsomethingghasggonegwronggi ngangargumentgorgthatgangassumptiongderivedgfromgexperiencegneedsgtogbegchecked. Itgmightginvolvegangillegalgdefinitiongorgrulegofgdeduction,gorgangapplicationgofgangassumpti ongbeyondgtheglimitgofgitsgapplicability. Whatgisgthegprinciplegofgsufficientgreason?g- gAnswergThegprinciplegofgsufficientgreasongstatesgthatgtheregcangbegnogfactgrealgorgexist ing,gnogstatementgtrue,gunlessgtheregbegagsufficientgreasongwhygitgshouldgbegsogandgn otgotherwise. Howgdoesgthegprinciplegofgsufficientgreasongrelategtogthegfundamentalgassumptiongofgscie nce?g- gAnswergThegprinciplegofgsufficientgreasongreflectsgthegfundamentalgassumptiongofgscienc egthatgthegworldgisgordered,gandgthatgthisgordergisgcomprehensiblegtoghumangreason.
Itgisgbasedgongthegpremisegthatgeverythingghasgag'logos',gorgthegrationalgprinciplegofgbeing,g andgtheregisgag'ratio'gwhygitgisgsogandgnotgotherwise. Whatgisgthegprinciplegofgthegidentitygofgindiscernibles?g- gAgprinciplegthatgtwogthingsgwhichgcangingnogrespectgwhatevergbegdistinguishedgfromgeac hgothergaregtogbegconsideredgasgidentical. Ifgtheregisgnogpossibilitygofgdistinguishinggtwogthings,gthengtheregisgnogreasongtogtakegthemg asgdifferentgthings. Howgdoesgthegprinciplegofgthegidentitygofgindiscerniblesgrelategtogclassificationgandgnami ng?g- gAnswergThegprinciplegofgthegidentitygofgindiscerniblesgisgusedgingcategorygformationgandg naming. Twogthingsgaregentitledgtogthegsamegnamegifgtheregisgnogessentialgdifferencegbetweengthe m. Thegtermg"essentialgdifference"grelatesgtogthegAristoteliangnotiongofgthegessentialgqualiti esgofgagthingg-gthosegqualitiesgwhichgitgmustgpossessgingordergtogbegentitledgtogitsgname. Definegtop-downgreasoning.g-gAnswergTop- downgreasoninggisgangapproachgthatgstartsgwithggeneralgtheories,gconceptsgorgideas,gandg movesgtowardsgthegspecificgdetails. Definegbottom-upgreasoning.g-AnswergBottom- upgreasoninggisgagmethodgthatgproceedsgfromgthegparticulargobservationgorgdetailsgtogth eggeneralgtheory,gconcept,gorgidea. Definegdeduction.g- AnswergDeductiongisgagformgofgreasoninggthatgmovesgfromgtheggeneralgtogthegspecific.gItgin volvesgthegdrawinggofgspecificgconclusionsgbasedgonggeneralg principlesgorgtheories. Deductivegreasoninggisgusuallygassociatedgwithgtop-downgapproaches.
upgandgdeduction/inductionginterconnectgingscientificgreasoning?g-gAnswergTop- downgreasoninggoftenginvolvesgdeduction,gasgitgstartsgwith
generalgtheoriesgorgprinciplesgandgappliesgthemgtogspecificgcases. Conversely,gbottom- upgreasoninggoftenginvolvesginduction,gasgitgstartsgwithgspecificgobservationsgandggeneralizesg themgintogbroadergprinciplesgorgtheories. Howgdogtheganalysis-synthesisgandgfunctional- structuralgreasoningsginterlinkgingthegcoursegofgscientificgreasoning?gAnswer:gAnalysisggo esgalonggwithgstructuralgreasoninggingthatgbreakinggdowngagcomplexgsystemgallowsgonegtog appreciategitsgconstituentgstructuralgparts. Synthesis,gforgthegmostgpart,ggoesgalonggwithgfunctionalgreasoninggasgcombininggconstit uentgpartsgnecessitatesgangappreciationgofgtheirgfunctionalgrolegandginteractionsgwithingth egsystem. Whatgisgabductiveginference?g- AnswergAbductiveginferencegisgagtypegofglogicalgreasoninggaimedgatgcreatinggthegmostgplausi blegexplanationgforgaggivengsetgofgobservations. Givegangexamplegofgdeductiveginference.g- AnswergAllgmengaregmortal.gSocratesgisgagman.gTherefore,gSocratesgisgmortal. Givegangexamplegofginductiveginference.g- AnswergEachgtimegIghavegseengagswan,gitgwasgwhite.gTherefore,gprobablygallgswansgareg white. Givegangexamplegofgabductiveginference.g- gAnswergTheggrassgisgwet.gOnegplausiblegexplanationgisgthatgitgrainedglastgnight. Howgdoesgthegcertaintygofgconclusionsgdiffergbetweengdeductive,ginductive,gandgabduct iveginference?g- gAnswergDeductiveginferencegprovidesgconclusionsgthatgaregnecessarilygtruegifgthegpremi sesgaregtruegandgthegreasoninggisgvalid. Inductiveginferencegprovidesgconclusionsgthatgareglikelygorgprobablegbutgnotgnecessarilygt rue.
Explaingthegsignificancegofgdistinguishinggbetweenglogicalgvaliditygandgempiricalgtruthging scientificgreasoning.g- gAnswergDistinguishinggbetweenglogicalgvaliditygandgempiricalgtruthgisgcrucialgingscientificgr easoning.gItgallowsgscientistsgtogidentifygfaultygpremisesgorgassumptionsgwhengaglogicall ygvalidgargumentgproducesgempiricallygfalsegconclusions. Thisgdistinctiongisgessentialgforgrefiningghypothesesgandgdevelopinggaccurategscientificgtheori es. WhatgdoesgthegLawgofgIdentitygmeangaccordinggtogAristotelianglogic?gAnswergThegLawgofgI dentitygmaintainsgthatgsomethinggisgwhatgitgis,gorgasgyourgtextbookgdescribesgit:ganythinggis gidenticalgtogitself.gForginstance,g"Agcatgisgagcat." WhatgisgthegmeaninggofgthegLawgofgContradiction?g- gAnswergThegLawgofgContradictiongsimplygmeansgthatgsomethinggcannotgbegbothgtruegan dgnotgtruegatgthegsamegtime.gForginstance,gagcatgcan'tgbegagmammalgandgnotgagmammalgat gthegsamegtime. WhatgdoesgthegLawgofgthegExcludedgMiddlegmean?g- gAnswergThegLawgofgthegExcludedgMiddlegmeansgthatgsomethinggmustgbegeithergtruegorgfa lse,gwithgnogmiddlegground.gForgexample,gagcatgisgeithergagmammalgorgit'sgnot;gthere'sgnogi n-between. Whygdogwegneedgthesegthreeglawsgofglogicgwhengusinggwords?g- gAnswergThesegthreeglawsghelpgusgusegwordsgclearlygandgconsistently. ThegLawgofgIdentitygmakesgsuregwegstickgtogthegsamegmeaninggforgagword. ThegLawgofgContradictiongstopsgusgfromgsayinggsomethinggcangbegbothgtruegandgfalse. ThegLawgofgthegExcludedgMiddlegsaysgthere'sgnogin- betweengforgagstatementgbeinggtruegorgfalse. Whygaregthesegthreeglawsgimportantgingscience?g- gAnswergTheseglawsgaregimportantgingsciencegbecausegtheyghelpgscientistsgcommunicate gclearlygandgavoidgconfusion.gBygfollowinggthesegrules,gscientistsgcangmakegsuregtheirgide asgandgfindingsgaregeasygtogunderstandgandgagreegupon.
Whatgisgthegcontrarygformgofgagproposition?g- gAnswergThegcontrarygformgisgwhengtwogstatementsgcan'tgbothgbegtruegbutgtheygcangbothgbegf alse. Forgexample,g"Allgdogsgaregblack"gandg"Allgdogsgaregwhite"gcan'tgbothgbegtruegbutgtheygca ngbothgbegfalsegifgtheregaregdogsgofgdifferentgcolors. Whatgisgthegsubcontrarygformgofgagproposition?g- gAnswergThegsubcontrarygformgisgwhengtwogstatementsgcangbothgbegtrue,gbutgtheygcan'tg bothgbegfalse. Forgexample,g"Somegdogsgaregblack"gandg"Somegdogsgaregwhite"gcangbothgbegtrue,gbutgth eygcan'tgbegbothgfalsegatgthegsamegtime. Whatgisgthegcontradictorygformgofgagproposition?g- gAnswergThegcontradictorygformgisgwhengtwogstatementsgcannotgbegbothgtruegorgbothgbegf alsegatgthegsamegtime.gForgexample,g"Allgdogsgaregblack"gandg"Somegdogsgaregnotgblack"g aregcontradictorygbecausegifgonegisgtrue,gthegothergmustgbegfalse. Whatgisgsubalternationgingproposition?g-gAnswergSubalternationg- gAgrelationshipgbetweengaguniversalgandgagparticulargstatementgingwhichgbothgsubjectgan dgpredicategaregthegsame.gSincegifgtheguniversalgonegisgtrue,gthegparticulargonegwouldghav egtogbegtruegalso. Example:gSupposingg"Allgdogsgaregmammals"gisgtruegtheng"Somegdogsgaregmammals"gsho uldgbegtrue,gtoo. Whatgisgsyllogism?g- gAgsyllogismgbasicallygmeansgagformgofgreasoninggingwhichgtwogstatements comegforwardgandgagconclusionghasgbeengdrawngfromgthem,gwhichgcontainsg threegparts.gFirst,gthegmajorgpremise;gsecond,gthegminorgpremise;gandgthirdly,gthegconclusi on. Whatgisgthegmajorgpremisegingagsyllogism?g- gAnswergThegmajorgpremisegisgthegfirstgstatementgingagsyllogism.gItggenerallygcontainsgthe
Whatgisgthegminorgpremisegingagsyllogism?g- gAnswergThegminorgpremisegisgthegsecondgstatementgingagsyllogism.gItggenerallygcontainsg thegminorgterm,gwhichgbecomesgthegsubjectgingthegconclusion. Whatgaregthegsubject,gpredicate,gandgmiddlegtermsgofgagsyllogism?g- gAnswergThegsubjectgtermgisgthegminorgtermgandgitgbecomesgthegsubjectgofgthegconclusi on. Thegpredicategtermgisgthegmajorgtermgandgitgbecomesgthegpredicategofgthegconclusion. Thegmiddlegtermgisgcommongtogbothgpremisesgbutgdoesgnotgappeargingthegconclusion. Whatgaregthegfourgfiguresgofgsyllogisms?g- gAnswergThegfourgfiguresgofgsyllogismsgrefergtogthegvariousgwaysgthatgthegmajor,gminorgan dgmiddlegtermsgaregarrangedgingthegpremises.gThegfiguregisgdeterminedgbygthegpositiongo fgthegmiddlegterm. Whatgisgthegqualitygofgagstatementgingagsyllogism?g- gAnswergThegqualitygofgagstatementgingagsyllogismgisgwhethergitgisgaffirmativeg(positive)gorg negative. Angexamplegofgangaffirmativegstatementgisg"Allgdogsgaregmammals."gAngexamplegofgagneg ativegstatementgisg"Nogdogsgaregreptiles." Whatgisgthegquantitygofgagstatementgingagsyllogism?g- gAnswergThegquantitygofgagstatementgingthegsyllogismgincludesgwhethergitgisguniversal- everygmembergofgaggroup-or particular-somegmembersgofgaggroup. Angexamplegofgaguniversalgstatementgwouldgbe,g"Allgdogsgaregmammals."gAngexamplegofgag particulargstatementgwouldgbe,g"Somegdogsgaregsmall." ExplaingEdwardgJenner'sgdiscoverygofgagvaccinationgagainstgsmallpoxgandgthegfourgpolar itiesgofgreason.g-gAnswergWhatgkindgofgsystemsgapproachgdidgJennergutilizegwithghisgwork?
Bottom- upgapproach.gJennergworkedgfromgindividualgobservationsg(aglocalgobservationgofgcowgp oxgingmilkmaids)gandgmovedgtogtheggeneral,gagvaccinationgforgsmallgpox. WhatgtypegofginferencegmethodgdoesgJennerguseginghisgwork? Inductiveginference:gJennergbegangwithgthegparticulargobservationsgandgexperiments,gsu chgasgthegonegwithgcowpox,gandgthenginferredgaggeneralgprinciplegforgvaccination. WhatgtypegofgreasoninggisgimplicitgingJenner'sgwork? Synthesis:gJennergputgtogethergseveralgobservationsgandgpiecesgofginsight- cowpox,gsmallpox,gandgimmunegresponse-togarrivegatgagnewgidea,gvaccination. TogwhatgformgofgexplanationgdoesgJenner'sgworkgbelong? Functionalgexplanation:gJennergexplainedghowgvaccinationgworksgbygdescribinggthegfunc tiongofgthegimmunegresponsegingprotectinggagainstgfuturegsmallpoxginfections. Whatgisgthegapproachgtogsystemsgingtheghypothetico-deductivegmethod?g- gAnswergTop- down.gScientistsgstartgwithgaggeneralghypothesisgandgthengtestgitgwithgspecificgexpe rimentsgorgobservations. Whatgisgthegreasoninggprocessgingtheghypothetico-deductivegmethod?g- gAnswergAnalysis.gScientistsgbreakgdowngaggeneralghypothesisgintogspecific,gtestablegpredic tions. Whatgisgtheginferencegmethodgingtheghypothetico-deductivegmethod?g- gAnswergDeduction.gScientistsgmakegaggeneralghypothesisgtogpredictgspecificgresults,gthe ngtestgthesegpredictionsgwithgexperiments. Whatgisgthegformgofgexplanationgingtheghypothetico-deductivegmethod?g- gAnswergStructuralgexplanation.gScientistsgexplaingphenomenagbygidentifyinggthegunderl yinggstructuresgorgmechanismsgthatgcausegthem. Howgisgmathematicsgusedgingthegphysicalgsciences?g- gAnswergIngthegphysicalgsciences,gtheoriesgaregoftengexpressedgingmathematicalglanguage.
statementgofgtheorygandgexperimentation. WhatgwasgNewton'sgreasongforgmarryinggmathgandgscience?g- gAnswergNewtongviewedgmathematicsgasgagmeansgofgdescribinggtheglawsgofgnaturegwithgpr ecision.gHegmaintainedgthatgthroughgmathematicalgreasoning,gonegcouldgdevelopgagseve regframeworkgforgunderstandinggandgpredictiongingphysicalgphenomena. WhatginfluentialgworkgisgNewtongknowngtoghavegpublishedgwhichginvolvesgthegapplicationgo fgmathematicsgtowardsgscience?g- gAnswer:gNewtongpublishedg"PhilosophiægNaturalisgPrincipiagMathematica"g(Mathematic algPrinciplesgofgNaturalgPhilosophy),gingwhichghegformulatedgtheglawsgofgmotiongandgunive rsalggravitationgthatgshowedghowgfargmathematicsgwouldggogingdescribinggphysicalgrealit y. HowgdidgcalculusgcontributegtogNewton'sgscientificgwork?g- gAnswergCalculus,gindependentlygdevelopedgbygNewtongandgLeibniz,gprovidedgthegmathe maticalgtoolsgneededgtoganalyzegmotiongandgchange. Newtongusedgcalculusgtogformulateghisglawsgofgmotiongandggravitation,gallowingghimgtogde scribegandgpredictgphysicalgphenomenagwithgunprecedentedgprecision. Whatgisgthegdifferencegbetweengaccuracygandgprecision?gAnswergAccuracygingagmea surementgisgthegdifferencegbetweengthegactualgvaluegthatgthegobservedgmeasured,gwithg precisiongdescribinggthegabilitygofganginstrumentgtogbegablegtogdistinguishgvalues. Whygmustgerrorgestimatesgbegmadegduringgscientificgmeasurement?gAnswergIngscientificg measurements,gerrorgestimategenablesgthegscientistsgtogachievegthegquantificationgofgth eirguncertaintygaboutgtheirgmeasurementsghenceghelpinggingknowingghowgtrustworthygth eirgfindingsgwillgbe. Whatgisghypothesisgtestinggingthegcontextgofgscientificgexperiments?g- gAnswergHypothesisgtestinggisgagstatisticalgproceduregtogdeterminegwhethergaghypothesisgisg supportedgorgrejectedgbasedgongthegevidencegfromgangexperiment.gItginvolvesgcomparinggag predictedgvaluegwithgangexperimentalgresultgandgassessinggthegprobabilitygthatgthegobserve dgdifferencegoccurredgbygchance.
Whygisgitgimportantgtogconsidergsourcesgofgerrorgingmeasurements?g- gAnswergConsideringgerrorgsourcesghelpsgidentifygpotentialgbiases,gimprovegmeasurement gprecision,gandgincreasegthegreliabilitygofgexperimentalgresults. Whatgisgangunbiasedgsample,gandgwhygisgitgimportantgingstatistics?g- gAnswergAngunbiasedgsamplegisgagrepresentativegsubsetgofgagpopulation,gselectedgwithou tgsystematicgfavoritismgorgexclusiongofgcertainggroups.gIt'sgimportantgbecausegitgallowsgforg accurateggeneralizationsgaboutgthegpopulation. Whatgisgthegstandardgdeviationgandgwhatgdoesgitgmeasuregofgagsample?g- gAnswergThegstandardgdeviationgisgessentiallygagmeasuregofgdispersiongorgspreadgofgags etgofgdata.gItgtellsgagstorygaboutghowgtightlygthegdatagpointsgaregclusteredgaroundgthegme angofgthegsample;gthatgis,gwithgagsmallgstandardgdeviationgofgdatagpointsgclosegtogthegmean gvalue. Whygisgthegstandardgdeviationgimportantgingstatisticalganalysis?g- gAnswergThegstandardgdeviationghelpsgassessgthegvariabilitygofgdatagwithingagsample.gItgp rovidesginsightsgintogthegdistributiongofgdata,gthegprecisiongofgmeasurements,gandgthegreli abilitygofgconclusionsgdrawngfromgthegdata. Whatgdoesgitgmeangbyg"statisticallygsignificantgresult"?g- AnswergAgstatisticallygsignificantgresultgisgone,gwhichgisgunlikelygtogbegobtainedgbygchance. gForgthisgreason,gagfindinggfromgthegtestgisgconsideredgevidencegforgtheghypothesisgtested
- thegrealgexistencegofgangobservedgeffect. WhygdidgAristoteliangnaturalgphilosophersgobjectgtogthegapplicationgofgmathematicsgingn aturalgphilosophy?gAnswergAristoteliangnaturalgphilosophersgobjectedgtogthegapplicatio ngofgmathematicsgingnaturalgphilosophygbecausegtheygconsideredgthatgmathematicsgdeal tgwithgabstractgandgidealizedgthings,gwhereasgnaturalgphilosophygdealtgwithgthegstudygofgth egreal,gconcrete,gchangeablegworld.gTheygviewedgmathematicsgasganginappropriategtoolgf orgdealinggwithgthegcomplexitygandgvariabilitygofgnature. Whatgisgthegprocessgofgcollectinggentitiesgintogcategoriesgandglabelinggthemgcalled?g- gAnswergItgisgcalledg"systematics"gorg"classification". Forginstance,gingbiology,gorganismsgaregclassifiedgintogcategoriesgsuchgasgkingdom,
Whatgaregthegdifferencesgbetweengstrategicgandgtacticalgmodelsgingscience?g- gAnswergStrategicgmodelsgaregutilizedgforglong- termgplanninggandgbroadgunderstandinggofgagsystem.gTacticalgmodelsgaregspecificgandg utilizedgforgshort-termgdecisionsgorgactions. Forginstance,gagclimategmodelgpredictinggglobalgtemperaturegrisesgovergthegnextgcenturygi sgstrategic,gwhilegagweathergmodelgpredictinggnextgweek'sgraingisgtactical. Whatgisgthegrelationgbetweengtheories,gmodels,ghypotheses,gexperiments,gandgdatagingsci entificgreasoning?g- gAnswergTheoriesgprovidegoverarchinggexplanationsgforgphenomenagingnature. Modelsgaregsimplificationsgofgrealitygusedgtogunderstandgcomplexgsystems.gHypothesesg aregproposedgexplanationsgthatgcangbegtested,gexperimentsgaregthegtestingggroundsgforg hypotheses,gandgdatagisgtheginformationgcollectedgfromgthesegexperiments. Forgexample,gthegtheorygofgevolutiongprovidesgagframeworkgwithingwhichgspecificgmodelsgo fgevolutiongaregbuilt,ghypothesesgaboutgevolutionarygmechanismsgaregmade,gexperimentsg aregconductedgtogtestgthese,gandgdatagisgcollectedgtogsupportgorgrefutegtheghypotheses. Whatgaregthegtwogbasicgpropertiesgofgtypes,gandghowgdogempiricalgtypesgandgidealgtypesg differ?g-gAnswergThegtwogbasicgpropertiesgofgtypesgaregidentitygandgmeaning. Identitygisgaboutgthegpositiongofgagtypegingagparametergspace,ggivengbygitsgattributes. Meaninggconcernsgthegvariablesgthatgdefinegthegparametergspacegandgwhatginformationgi sgconveyedgbygknowinggthatgangentitygisgofgagparticulargtype. Empiricalgtypesgaregderivedgfromgobservationgandgcomparison;gidealgtypesgaregproposedgf orgtheoreticalgpurposes. Empiricalgtypesgwouldgbegsuchgasgthegvariousgbreedsgofgdogsgbasedgupongtheirgpedigree,gwhil egidealgtypesgaregwhatgthegjudgesgatgagdoggshowgwouldgusegwhengcomparinggeach
individualgdoggagainstgthegidealgtypegofgthatgbreed. Explaingthegconnectiongbetweengthegconceptgofganalogygandgsymmetry,gandghowgdoesgsci encegmakegusegofganalogies?g- gAnswergAnalogiesgmakegoutgsimilaritiesgbetweengdifferentgthingsgorgconcepts,ghelpinggtog concludegaboutgonegfromgwhatghasgalreadygbeengknowngaboutgthegother. Theygaregoftengutilizedgingsciencegtogexplaingtechnicalgconcepts. Forginstance,gtheg"treegofglife"gmetaphorgingbiologygdepictsgallglivinggbeingsgasgbranchesgo fgangevolutionarygprocessgbeginninggwithgagsinglegprimitivegorganism. Whatgaregthegthreegstructuralgcriteriagforgconstructinggagtypology?g- gAnswergThegthreegstructuralgcriteriagforgconstructinggagtypologygare:gspecifiedgboundarie s,gcompleteness,gandgexclusivegtypes. Specifiedgboundariesgmeangthatgthegtypesgofgthegtypologygaregsharplygdelineatedgandgdis tinct. Completenessgmeansgthegtypologygincludesgallgthegpossiblegtypesgthatgfallgwithingthegdefi nedgboundaries. Exclusivegtypesgmeangthatgeachgentitygbeinggclassifiedgbelongsgtogonlygonegtypegingthegtypolo gy. Theregaregfourgdifferentgscalesgupongwhichgthegtypologygvariablesgcangbegevaluated.gIde ntifygthemg- gAnswergTheygshouldgbegconsistent,gequivalent,gequidistant,gandgindependent. Consistencygingagtypologygrefersgtogthegfactgthatgallgtypesgmustgbegdefinedgongthegbasisgofgt hegsamegcriteriagofgidentity.gForginstance,gitgwouldgbeginconsistentgtogdefinegsomegtypesgb asedgongsizegandgothersgongcolor.
Whatgaregthreeggeneralgwaysgofgdefininggtypesgingmoderngsystematics?gAnswergThegthre egwaysgaregthegAristotelian,gthegstatisticalgandgthegphylogenetic. Example:gIfgwegaregclassifyinggbirds,gAristoteliangtypologygmaygconsiderg"abilitygtogfly"gasge ssential;gstatisticalgtypologygmaygconsidergnumerousgvariablesglikegcolor,gsize,gandgdiet,ga ndgusegstatisticalgmeasuresgforgclassification;gandgphylogeneticgtypologygmaygconsidergth egevolutionaryglineage,ggroupinggbirdsgbasedgongtheirgcommongancestors. WhatgisgAristoteliangtypology?g- gAnswergAristoteliangtypologygcontainsgonlygagfewgvariables,gchosengbecausegtheygaregb elievedgtogrelategdirectlygtogtheg"essential"gcharacteristicsgofgthegentitiesgbeinggclassifie d. WhatgisgStatisticalgtypology?g- gAnswergStatisticalgtypologygdistinguishesgtypesgbasedgongaglargegnumbergofgvariables,ge achgofgwhichgisgconsideredgrelevant,gbutgnonegofgwhichgisgnecessarilygconsideredgessen tial,gforgtypegidentity. WhatgisgPhylogeneticgtypology?g- gAnswergPhylogeneticgtypologygassumesgallgmembersgofgagparticulargtypeghavegdescende dgdirectlygfromgangearliergtype. Phylogeneticgclassificationgisgbasicallygagfamilygtree:gallgmembersgofgagparticulargtypegareg assumedgtoghavegdescendedgdirectlygfromgangearliergtype. WhatgisgagModelgingscience?g- gAnswergAgmodelgingsciencegisgagmechanicalgorgtheoreticalgconstructgdevisedgtogstudygagparti culargrealgworldgsituationgorgphenomenon.gIt'sgagsimplifiedgrepresentationgofgrealitygthatgma yghelpgingunderstandinggandgprediction. Forgexample,gagwindgtunnelgmodelgofgagnewgaircraftgdesign. Whatgisgagnonmathematical,gtheoreticalgmodel?g- AnswergAgnonmathematical,gtheoreticalgmodelgisgonegthatgdependsgonganalogygandgisgnotgsu pportedgbygmathematicalgequations.gSuchgagmodelgservesgtogexplaingoverallgconceptsgbutgoft
engdoesgnotglendgitselfgtogspecificgquantification.
