Development Theories: Growth Stages & Crises from Erikson to LGBTQ+, Study notes of Social Work

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Theories of Life Span Development

Key Concepts:

• growth * epigenetic * lifeprints
• development * ego syntonic * midlife consciousness
• life-cycle stages * ego dystonic * birth cohort
• life span * ego transcendence * ontogenetic model
• life-course * adaptation mechanisms

Key Theorists:

Erik Erikson Robert Havinghurst Daniel Levinson George Vaillant

Erik Erikson: Eight Stages of Man -- epigenetic model of development – “parts rise at specific time of ‘ascendancy’” -- development is characterized by a crisis in which the ego assists the individual in attaining balance -- crisis at each stage is conflict between two opposing personality traits – one is ego syntonic the other is ego dystonic – healthy resolve is largely in favor of the syntonic, with a balance of dystonic -- Freudian foundation – expanded to include additional stages of adult development -- focuses on ego, rather than id -- ego plays key role in mastery of tasks and mastery of environment -- historical context is important

Spiritual component – religious development – integrating understanding with actuality – interested in balancing that which benefits self and others – confront own mortality, limitedness while working for social justice.

Psychosocial Theory of Development

Stage 1: Basic Trust versus Basic Mistrust – (birth to 1 year) Stage 2: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt – (2-3) Stage 3: Initiative versus Guilt – (3-5) Stage 4: Industry versus Inferiority – School age (6-12) Stage 5: Identity versus Role Confusion – Adolescence (12-18 or so) Stage 6: Intimacy versus Isolation – Young Adulthood (early to late 20s) Stage 7: Generativity versus Stagnation -- Adulthood (late 20s –50s) Stage 8: Integrity versus Despair -- Late Adulthood (after 50)

Life Span Development of Women

-- Androcentric bias in most theories of development -- women’s different development leads to a greater understanding of interdependence, harmony, and mutual empowerment Carol Gilligan – men (identity! intimacy) women (intimacy! identity) -- some critiques of arguments concerning the uniqueness of female development increase conditions of inequality -- Research on older women finds no midlife crisis.

Gay and Lesbian Development

Coming Out Process – SeeTable 7. Stage 1 – Identity confusion, being different, recognition Stage 2 – Identity comparison, coming out to self Stage 3 – Identity tolerance, exploration, relationships, coming out to others Stage 4 – Identity acceptance, significant relationships Stage 5 – Identity pride Stage 6 – Integration of identity

-- problems with sequential model -- western culture – not applicable in other settings

Three factors set LGBT individuals apart from other cultural minorities:

1. lesbians and gay men do not usually have familial support to assist in the developmental process
2. most lesbians and gay men can “pass” as heterosexual and are thus constantly confronted with the question whether to come out in any given setting
3. sexual orientation is not always viewed as an immutable characteristic, and is often perceived as a matter of choice that can be changed

Stage Theories: Popularity versus Validity

-- problems with ontogenetic models -- universal life stages for psychosocial development probably don’t exist -- popularity due to vagueness and ease of understanding -- research shows more similarities among birth cohorts than successive generations at the same stage in life -- generationality (e.g., baby boomers, Generation X)

Application to Social Work Practice

-- Erikson’s approach fits in the person-in-environment tradition

Definition of Helping Situation -- problem and growth

Assessment, Practice Strategies, and Methods -- “expert” clinician who assessing clients -- focus on developing insight, aimed at strengthening the rational capabilities of the ego -- Erikson didn’t focus on childhood experience, stressed personal responsibilities -- “life review” with the elderly -- contemporary models suggest focus on individual and group empowerment

Critical Analysis

Biological, Psychological, and Spiritual Factors -- biology is important, but not primary -- focus is on physical growth and development -- limited attention to spiritual matters (except for Erikson and Jung)

Social, Cultural, and Economic Factors -- social environment and historical context are addressed by Erikson – theory too specific to address social changes since industrialization -- social class and economic factors are not addressed

Relevance to Individuals, Groups, Families, Organizations, Institutions, and Communities -- primary focus is on individual

Consistency with Social Work Values and Ethics

-- focus on adaptive functioning fits with social work values -- theories recognize potential for creativity and growth, do not pathologize behavior -- criticized for rigidly defined stages -- fail to address diversity, ignores or minimizes class, sex, race, cultural, sexual orientation differences

Philosophical Underpinnings

-- wellness-oriented -- human development is lifelong; development unfolds in stages -- some theories assume a transition period between stages in which a “crisis” is common -- transition periods are assumed to provide opportunities for growth -- adulthood is seen in terms of health, rather than pathology -- most theories have a universal path (ignoring diversity factors) -- poor adaptation and coping are assumed to be related to intrapsychic rather than environment factors -- emphasis on personal responsibility, free choice, and the material -- “Protestant work ethic” is reflected (Weber)

Methodological Issues and Empirical Support

-- positivistic -- research is methodologically flawed – contradictory definitions of concept (for instance “personality”) -- overgeneralizations from small, white, middle-class samples -- better at explanation than prediction -- better at probabilistic, rather than deterministic level of explanation -- better than psychodynamic theories at explaining behavior of groups at a given time