NR 507/ NR507: Advanced pathophysiology Final Exam (Latest 2025/2026) Download to Score A+, Exams of Nursing

Download NR 507/ NR507: Advanced pathophysiology Final Exam (Latest 2025/2026) Download to Score A+ and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity!

NR I 507 IAdvanced Ipathophysiology IFinal

IExam

_________ Iand I__________ Iis Iincreased Iin IACTH-dependent Ihypercortisolism. I- I✅ACTH, Iand Icortisol ____________ Iis Icaused Iby Iexcessive Isecretion Iof Ialdosterone Ifrom Ian Iabnormality Iof Ithe Iadrenal Icortex, Iusually Ia Isingle Ibenign Ialdosterone-producing Iadrenal Iadenoma. I- I✅Primary Ihyperaldosteronism A Icholeretic Iagent Iis I- I✅a Isubstance Ithat Istimulates Ithe Iliver Ito Isecrete Ibile. IOne Istrong Istimulus Iis Ia Ihigh Iconcentration Iof Ibile Isalts A Ideficient Iamount Iof IADH Icauses Iwhat? I- I✅Serum Ihyper-osmolarity A Igroup Iof Iinsulin-sensitizing Idrugs, Icall Ithe Ithiazolidinediones Ithat Imodulate IPPARy Iactivity Ihave Ibeen Iused Iin Ithe Itreatment Iof_____________ I- I✅Type III Idiabetes A Imajor Iimmune Isuppressant Ieffect Iis Ia Iglucocorticoid-mediated Idecrease Iin Ithe Iproliferation Iof IT Ilymphocytes, Iprimarily I____________________lymphocytes. I- I✅T- Helper ILymphocytes. Absence Iof IGnRH Ifrom Ithe Ihypothalamus Ithere Iis Ia Ilack Iof I__________________ Iand I_________________ Ifrom Ithe Ipituitary. I- I✅FSH Iand ILH Absence Iof Ihypothalamic Ireleasing Ior Iinhibiting Ihormones Icauses Ia Ivariety Iof Iconditions Ithat Ipresent Iclinically Ias____________. I- I✅Pituitary Idisease ACTH Ideclines Ithroughout Ithe? I- I✅day ACTH Ipeaks I 3 - 5 Ihours Iafter Iwhat? I- I✅sleep Ibegins ADH I(antidiuretic IHormone) I- I✅Major Ihomeostatic Ifunction Iof Iposterior Ipituitary Iis Icontrol Iof Iplasma Iosmolality, Ias Iregulated Iby IADH ADH I(given Ias IVasopressin) Imay Ihelp Ito: I- I✅Increase IBP Iand Ito Iachieve Ihemostasis Iduring Ivolume Iloss Iduring Ishock Istates. ADH Ifunctions I- I✅Homeostasis, Icontrol Iplasma Iosmolality. IActs Iof IVasopressin I 2 I(V2) Ireceptors Iof Irenal Itubular Icells Ito Iincrease Ipermeability Iwhich Ileads Ito Iincreased Iwater

Ireabsorption Iinto Ithe Iblood Iand Iproduction Iof Imore Iconcentrated Iurine, Ithese Imay Ibe Iinhibited Iby Ihypercalcemia, Iprostaglandin IE, Iand Ihypokalemia. ADH Isecretion Idecreased Iwith: I- I✅Decrease Iin Iplasma Iosmolality, Iincrease Iin Iintravascular Ivolume, Ihypertension, Iincrease Iin Iestrogen, Iprogesterone, Iangiotensin III Ilevels, Iand Ialcohol Iingestion ADH Isecretion Iis Icontrolled Iby: I- I✅osmoreceptors Iof Ithe Ihypothalamus. IStimulated Iby Iincreased Iplasma Iosmolality, Ithen IADH Isecretion Iis Iincreased, Iwater Iis Ithen Ireabsorbed Ifrom Ithe Ikidney, Iand Iplasma Iis Idiluted Ito Iits' Isetpoint Iosmolality I(280 ImOsm/kg). IADH Ihas Ian Iindirect Iaffect Ion Ielectrolyte Ilevels Idue Ito Iincreased Iwater Ireabsorption. IElectrolytes Imay Idecrease. ADH Isecretion Iis Ialso Iincreased Iby Ichanges Iin Iintravascular Ivolume Imonitored Iby Imechanoreceptors Iin Ileft Iatrium Iand Icarotid Iand Iaortic Iarches. IVolume Iloss Ithrough Itrauma I(7%-25%) Iacts Ion Ireceptors Ito Istimulate IADH Isecretion. Adrenal Icortex Iaccounts Ifor______% Iof Iweight Iof Ithe Iadult Igland. I- I✅80% Adrenal IGlands I- I✅paired Ipyramid Ishaped Iorgan Ilocated Ibehind Ithe Iperitoneum Iand Iclose Ito Iupper Ipole Iof Ieach Ikidney. Adrenocorticotropic Ihormone I(ACTH) I- I✅SECRETORY ICELL ITYPE: ICorticotropic TARGET IORGANS: IAdrenal IGland I(cortex) FUNCTIONS: IIncreased Isteroidogenesis I(cortisol, Iand Iandrogenic Ihormones Age Irelated Ichanges Iin IThyroid Ifunction Iinclude Iwhat? I- I✅Decrease Iin ITSH Isecretion, Iresponsiveness Ito Ilevels Iof ITSH Iconcentration Ito ITRH Iadministration Iis Ireduced, Iespecially Iin Imen Aggregatged IAmylin Ihas I__________________properties Iand Icontributes Ito Ithe Iloss Iof Ibeta Icells Iin IType I 2 IDM Iand Iin Iislet Icell Itransplants. I- I✅cytotoxic Alanine Iaminotransferase I(ALT) I- I✅ALT Itransfers Ian Iamino Igroup Ifrom Ialanine Ito Iα- ketoglutarate Ito Iform Ipyruvate Iand Iglutamate. Aldosterone Iacts Ito Iconserve___________ Iby Iincreasing Ithe Iactivity Iof Ithe Isodium Ipump Iof Ithe Iepithelial Icells Iin Ithe Inephron. I- I✅sodium Aldosterone Iis Ithe Imost Ipotent Iof Iall Ithe I_____________________. I- I✅mineralocorticoids Aldosterone Isynthesis Iand Isecretion Iare Iregulated Iby Ithe Irenin___________________. I- I✅renin-angiotensin-aldosterone Isystem. Alpha Icells Isecrete I- I✅Glucagon

Alterations Iin Iserum Iphosphate Ilevels Imay Iindirectly Iinfluence IPTH Isecretion Iby Iaffecting Iwhat? I- I✅serum Icalcium Ilevels Amylin Ialso Ihas Ia I___________effect. I- I✅Satiety Amylin Iis I_____________in Iboth ItypeI Iand Itype III IDM. I- I✅decreased. Amylin Iregulates Iwhat? IBy Idoing Iwhat? I- I✅Blood Iglucose Ilevels, Iby Idelaying Inutrient Iuptake Iand Isuppressing Iglucagon Isecretion Iafter Imeals. Amylin, Iwhat Iis Iit? I- I✅(Islet Iamyloid Ipolypeptide) Iis Ia Ipeptide Ihormone Ico-secreted Iwith Iinsulin Iby Ibeta Icells Iin Iresponse Ito Inutrient Istimuli. An Iexcessive Iamount Iof IADH Icauses Iwhat? I- I✅water Iretention Iand Ihypo-osmolar Istate Anabolic Ifunctions Iof IGH Iare Imediated Iby? I- I✅partially Iby Iinsulin-like Igrowth Ifactors I(IGF's) Ior Ialso Icalled Isomatomedins. Another IBeta-cell Ihormone Iis Iwhat? I- I✅Amylin Anterior IPituitary I- I✅Acct Ifor I75% Iof Itotal Iweight Iof Ipituitary Igland. IThree Iregions, Ipars Idistalis, Iparts Ituberalis, Iand Ipars Iintermedia. IPars Idistalis Iis Imajor Icomponent Iof IAnterior IPituitary Iand Isource Iof IAnterior IPituitary IHormones. Anterior IPituitary Icomposed Iof Itwo Imain Icell Itypes: I- I✅Chromophobes, Iand Ichromophils Chromophobes Iappear Ito Ibe Inon-secretory, Iand IChromophils Iare Isecretory Icells Iof Ithe Iadenohypophysis. Any Isurgery Ican Iresult Iin Ipost-op Ifluid Ivolume Ishifts Iand Itransient I_______________for Ias Ilong Ias I 5 - 7 Idays Ipost Iop. I- I✅SIADH Approximately I 40 - 50% Iof Iindividuals Ihave Iimpaired I____________tolerance Iin Ithe Ipancreas. I- I✅glucose Aspartate Iaminotransferase I(AST) I- I✅AST Itransfers Ian Iα-amino Igroup Ibetween Iaspartate Iand Iglutamate. Atrophic Igastritis Iand Ifailure Ito Iabsorb Ivitamin IB12 Iresult Iin I- I✅pernicious Ianemia B-Endorphins I- I✅Analgesia; Imay Iregulate Ibody Itemp, Ifood Iand Iwater Iintake I(Corticotropic, IAdipose Icells, Ibrain Iopioid Ireceptors)

B-Lipotropin I- I✅Fat Ibreakdown Iand Irelease Iof Ifatty Iacids I(Corticotropic, Ifrom IAdipose ICells) Bacteroides, Iclostridia, Ianaerobic Ilactobacilli, Iand Icoliforms Iare Ithe Imost Icommon Imicroorganisms Ifrom I- I✅the Iileum Ito Ithe Icecum BEGIN ICHAPTER I 22 I- IALTERATIONS IOF IHORMONAL IREGULATION I- I✅GOOD ILUCK ITO IYOU!! Beta Icells Isecrete? I- I✅Insulin Bile Isalts I- I✅which Iare Iconjugated Ibile Iacids, Iare Irequired Ifor Ithe Iintestinal Iemulsification Iand Iabsorption Iof Ifats Bilirubin Iis Ia Ibyproduct Iof Idestruction Iof Iaged I- I✅red Iblood Icells Blood Iis Isupplied Ito Ithe Istomach Iby Ibranches Iof Ithe I- I✅celiac Iartery Calcitonin I- I✅Elevated Iserum Icalcium I(major Istimulant Ifor Icalcitonin), Iregulates Igastrin, Ipregnancy, Ilowered Iserum Icalcium, I(suppresses Icalcitonin Irelease). Calcitonin Ilowers Iserum Icalcium Iby Iopposing Ibone Iresorbing Ieffects Iof IPTH, Iprostaglandins, Iand Icalciferols Iby Iinhibiting Iosteoclastic Iactivity. Calcitonin Iare Iused Ito Itreat Iwhat? I- I✅Osteoporosis, Iosteoarthritis, IPaget Ibone Idisease, Ihypercalcemia, Iosteogensesis Iimperfecta, Iand Imetastatic Icancer Iof Ibone. Cathepsin I- I✅This Ienzyme Imobilize Icalcium Irelease Ifrom Ibone Iwhich Iincreases Ithe Iserum Icalcium Ilevel. Central Inervous Isystem Idisorders Iassociated Iwith ISIADH? I- I✅encephalitis, Imeningitis, Iintracranial Ihemorrhage, Itumors Iand Itrauma Certain Iorgans Iare Iat Irisk Iwhen Iinsulin Iresistance Iis Ievident Iwhich Iorgans Ior Isystems Iare Iat Igreater Irisk? I- I✅cardiovascular CHAPTER I 40 ISTRUCTURE IAND IFUNCTION IOF IDIGESTIVE ISYSTEM I- I✅GOOD ILUCK!! Chapter I 41 IAlterations Iof IDigestive IFunction I- I✅Good Iluck!! Chromophils Iand Iits' Iseven Isecretory Icell Itypes I- I✅

Chronic IPTH Istimulation Ican Ioccur Ifrom Iwhat? I- I✅parathyroid Itumors I(primary Ihyperparathyroidism) Ior Ichronic Ihypocalcemia, Ias Iin Iend Istage Irenal Idisease I(secondary Ihyperparathyroidism) IThis Icauses Iincreased Irisk Iin Ibone Ifracture. Chronic Istimulation Iof IPTH Iresults Iin Iwhat? I- I✅Bone Iremodeling. Common Icauses Iof Ihyperthyroid? I- I✅Graves Idisease, Itoxic Igoiter, Itoil Iadenoma, Ifollicular Ithyroid Icancer. Cortisol Iis Ithe Imost I________________of Ithe Inaturally Ioccurring Iglucocorticoids. I- I✅Potent Cushing Iis Ithe Ioverproduction Iof Ipituitary I_______________ I- I✅ACTH Iby Ia Ipituitary Iadenoma Cushing Isyndrome Iis Icaused Iby Iexcess_______________ I- I✅Cortisol, deamination I- I✅Within Ihepatocytes, Iamino Iacids Iare Iconverted Ito Icarbohydrates Iby Ithe Iremoval Iof Iammonia I(NH3), Ia Iprocess Iknown Ias Ideamination Decreased IAnterior Ipituitary Ifunction Icause Ia Idecrease Iin Iwhat Ihormones Iand Ian Iincrease Iin Ithis Ione Ihormone? I- I✅Decreases: IFSH, ILH, ITSH, IACTH, IGH Increase: IProlactin Decreased Ihypothalamic Ifunction Icauses Ia Idecrease Iin Iwhat Ihormones? I- I✅GnRH, ITRH, ICRH, IDopamine, IGHRH Decreased Ihypothalamic Ifunction/anterior Ipituitary SEE Idiagram I- I✅ Describe IAcromegaly. I- I✅Excessive Ilevels Iof IGH Iand Iconcomitant Ielevation Iof IIGF-1. Diabetes IInsipidus Iis Ian Iinsufficiency Iof Iwhat? I- I✅ADH, Ileading Ito Ipolyuria, Iand Ipolydipsia I(frequent Iurination Iand Ifrequent Idrinking) Diabetes IMellitus Iis Ia Idysfunction Iof Iwhat Iendocrine Iorgan? I- I✅Pancreas Diabetes IType II Iis Ithe Iloss Iof I__________in Ithe I__________. I- I✅beta Icells, Iin Ithe Ipancreatic Iislets diabetic Iretinopathy Iis Ithe Ileading Icause Iof Iwhat? I- I✅Blindness Iin Iadults Iolder Ithan I 60 Iwith IDM.

Diagnosis Iof ISIADH Iincludes Iwhat? I- I✅Serum Ihypoosmolality I<280mOsm/kg, Iand Ihyponatremia I<135 ImEq/L Diseases Iof Iposterior Ipituitary Icause Iabnormal Isecretion Iof Iwhat Ihormone? I- I✅ADH, Iarginine Ivasopressin Diseases Iof Iposterior Ipituitary Igland Icause Isignificant Iclinical Ieffects Ion Ithe Imodulation Iof Ibody___________and I_____________, Ibut Ialso Iaffect I___________and I___________responses Ito Istress. I- I✅Fluids Iand Ielectrolytes. Cognitive Iand Iemotional. Diseases Iof Ithe IAnterior IPituitary Iinclude? I- I✅Hypopituitarism, IHyperpituitarism I(primary Iadenoma), IAcromegaly I(Hypersecretion Iof IGH), Ihypersecretion Iof Iprolactin. DKA Iresults Iwhen Ithere Iis Ian Iabsolute Ior Irelative Ideficiency Iof________________and Ian Iincrease Iin Ithe Ilevels Iof Iinsulin Icounterregulatory________________. I- I✅Insulin, Ihormones Dopamine I- I✅Inhibits Isynthesis Iand Isecretion Iof Iprolactin Effects Iof IACTH. I- I✅Maintenance Iof Igland Isize, Idepletion Iof Iascorbic Iacid, Iactivation Iof Iadenylyl Icyclase, Iconversion Iof Icholesterol Ito Ipregnenolone, Iaccumulation Iof Icholesterol Iand Isecretion Iof Icortisol Iand Iadrenal Iandrogens. Endocrine Igland Iproduces? I- I✅Hormones Endocrine IPancrease Iis Iboth Ian I____________gland Iand I___________gland. I- I✅Endocrine Iand Iexocrine Enteroviruses Ican Icause_____________ I- I✅Type II IDiabetes Exocrine Igland Iproduces? I- I✅digestive Ienzymes Failure Iof Ifeedback Isystems Ileads Ito: I- I✅unrecognition Iof Ipositive Ifeedback Ileading Ito Iinadequate Ihormone Isynthesis, Iand Iexcessive Ihormone Isynthesis Fat ISoluble IHormones I- I✅Steroids Fat Isoluble Ivitamins Iinclude? I- I✅A,D,E,K Follicle IStimulating IHormone I(FSH) I- I✅Follicle Imaturation, Iestrogen Iproduction I(In IWomen: IGranulosa ICells, IIn IMen: ISertoli ICells) FPG Iof I________indicates IDiabetes I- I✅>

Functional Iareas Iof Ithe Istomach Iare Ithe I- I✅the Ifundus I(upper Iportion), Ibody I(middle Iportion), Iand Iantrum I(lower Iportion). functional Icells Iof Ithe Iliver I- I✅hepatocytes GH Iis Iessential Ifor Iwhat? I- I✅Growth, Ieffects Iof Iaging, Isleep, Inutritional Istatus, Istress, Iand Ireproductive Ihormones GH Iis Ireleased Iby Ithe? I- I✅GH Iis Ireleased Ifrom Ithe Ipituitary Iin Ia Ipulsatile Ifashion, Iand Ioverall Isecretion Ipeaks Iduring Iadolescence. Giantism? I- I✅In Ichildren Iand Iadolescent Iwhose Iepiphyseal Iplates Ihave Inot Iyet Iclosed, Ithe Ieffets Iof Iincreased IGH Ilevel Ion Ilong Ibone Igrowth Iis Itermed Igiantism. Glucagon I- I✅Produced Iby Ialpha Icells Iand Icells Ilining Ithe IGI Itract. Glucagon Iacts Ias Ian____________to Iinsulin. I- I✅antagonist Glucagon Iis Ia Ihormone Iproduced Iby______________ Iof Ithe_____________and Iacts Iprimarily Iin Ithe I______________to Iincrease Iblood Iglucose Ilevels Iby Istimulating Iglycogenolysis Iand Iglucogenesis. I- I✅Alpha Icells, Ipancreas, Iliver Glucagon-like Ipeptides I(GLP-1) I- I✅is Ia Imajor Iincretin Ihormone Glucocorticoid Ihormones Iincrease Iblood Iglucose Iconcentration Iby Ipromoting I_________________in Ithe I______________and Idecreasing Iuptake Iof I______________into Ithe Imuscle Icells Iadipose Icells Iand Ilymphatic Icells. I- I✅Gluconeogenesis Iin Ithe Iliver. Glucose Glucocorticoid Irefers Ito Ithose Isteroids Ithat Ihave Idirect Ieffects Ion I________________________metabolism. I- I✅carbohydrate Glucocorticoids Idecrease Iimmune Iand Iinflammatory Iresponse Iby Idecreasing I________________cell Iactivity Iand Isuppressing Isynthesis, Isecretion, Iand Iactions Iof Ichemical Imediators Iinvolved Iin Iinflammatory Iand Iimmune Iresponses. I- I✅Natural Ikiller Icell Iactivity Glucocorticoids Ihave Iwhat Ieffects? I- I✅metabolic, Ineurologic, Ianti-inflammatory, Iand Igrowth Isuppressing Ieffects. Glucocorticoids Iinhibit Ibone______, IADH_________, Iand Istimulation Iof I_____________acid Isecretion. I- I✅Formation, IADH Isecretion, Iand Igastric

Glucocorticoids Istimulate Iprotein____________and Iinhibit Iamino Iacid Iuptake Iand Iprotein Isynthesis. I- I✅catabolism I(The Iultimate Iaffect Ion Ithe Ibody) Glucose Iuptake Iis Iincreased Iin I______________cells,_______________cells, Iand___________cells? I- I✅Liver, Imuscle Iand Iadipose Glycation? I- I✅normal Inon-enzymatic Iprocess Ithat Iinvolves Ithe Ireversible Iattachement Iof Iglucose Ito Iproteins, Ilipids, Iand Inucleic Iacids Iwithout Ithe Iaction Iof Ienzymes. Glycogenesis Iis Iincreased Iin Iboth I___________cells Iand____________cells. I- I✅Liver Iand Imuscle Icells Glycogenolysis Iis Idecreased Iin Iwhich Itwo Itypes Iof Icells? I- I✅Liver Iand Imuscle Glycolysis Iis Iincreased Iin Iwhich Ithree Icell Itypes? I- I✅Liver, Imuscle Iand Iadipose Icells Gonadotropoin-releasing Ihormone I- I✅Stimulates Irelease Iof IFSH Iand ILH Growth IHormone Isecretion Iis Icontrolled Iby I 2 Ihormones Ifrom Ithe I__________________, I______________________and I________________ I- I✅hypothalamus, IGrowth IHormone-releasing Ihormone I(GHRH) Iwhich Ireleases, Iand Isomatostatin Iwhich Iinhibits IGH. HgbAIC Iis Igreater Ithan Ior Iequal Ito Iwhat? I- I✅6.5% Iin IDM High Iglucose Ilevels Icause Iinhibition Iof I______________ Irelease. I- I✅glucagon High Ilevels Iof IADH I- I✅Acts Ion IVasopressin I 1 Ireceptors Icausing Ivasoconstriction High Ilevels Iof Iglucocorticoids Ialso Iincrease________________ I- I✅Appetite Iand Ipromote Ifat Ideposition Iin Iface Iand Icervical Iarea. High Ilevels Iof Iglucocorticoids Iincrease Icirculating______________leading Ito I______________. I- I✅erythrocytes Ileading Ito Ipolycythemia. High Ilevels Iof Iinsulin Iand Isympathetic Istimulation Iof Ithe Ialpha Icells Iin Iislets Idiminishes Iinsulin Isecretion Iusing Ithe I___________________feedback Isystem. I- I✅Negative Hormones Iof IAnterior IPituitary I- I✅ACTH, IMSH, ILH, IGH, IFSH, Iand ITSH Hormones Iof Iposterior Ipituitary I- I✅ADH, Iand IOxytocin I(Peptide IHormones)

How Imany Ilayers Idoes Ithe IGI Itract Iconsist Iof? I- I✅4, Imucosa, Isubmucosa, Imuscularis Iand Iserosa Ior Iadventitia Hypercalcemia Iand Ihypophosphatemia Imost Icommonly Ioccur Iin I______________hyperparathyroidism. I- I✅Primary Hypercalcemia Idoes Inot Ioccur Iin I_________________hyperparathyroidism. I- I✅secondary Hyperparathyroidism Ican Icause Ieither Inormal Ior Ilow Icalcium Ilevels Itrue Ior Ifalse? I- I✅True. IIn Isecondary Ihyperparathyroidism. Hyperparathyroidism Icauses Ia Igreater Ithan Inormal Isecretion Iof Iwhat? I- I✅PTH Iand Ihypercalcemia Hyperphosphatemia Ileads Ito Iwhat? I- I✅hypocalcemia Ibecause Iof Icalcium Iphosphate Iprecipitation Iin Isoft Itissue Iand Ibone. Hyperthyroid Iis Ialso Icalled? I- I✅Thyrotoxicosis Hypomagnesemia Ican Icause Ia Idecrease Iin I_________secretion Iand Ifunction. I- I✅PTH Hypoparathyroidism Iresults Iin Ia Idecrease Iin Iserum________levels Iand Iincreased Iserum I_________levels. I- I✅serum Icalcium Ilevels Iand Iincreased Iserum Iphosphate Ilevels. Hypopituitarism? I- I✅failure Ior Iabsence Iof Iall Ipituitary Ihormone Ifunction. hypothalamic Idysfunction Iis Ian Iinterruption Iof Ithe Ipituitary Istalk, Iwhich Ican Ibe Icaused Iby_____________lesions, Irupture Iafter Ia Ihead Iinjury, Isurgery Ior Itumor. I- I✅destructive Hypothalamic Ihormones Iand Itarget Itissues I(Hypophysiotropic Ihormones) I- I✅HORMONES: IThyrotropin IReleasing IHormone I(TRH), IGonadotropoin-releasing Ihormone I(GnRH), ISomatostatin, IGrowth Ihormone-releasing Ihormone I(GHRH), Icorticotropin-releasing Ihormone I(CRH), Substance IP, IDopamine, IProlactin-releasing Ifactor. TARGET ITissue: IAnterior IPituitary Hypothalamic Ireleasing IHormones Iin IPosterior Ipituitary's Imedian Ieminence. I- I✅Includes I 10 Ihypothalamic Ireleasing Ihormones Iand Ineurotransmitters Isuch Ias Idopamine, Inorepinephrine, Iserotonin, Iacetylcholine, Iand Ihistamine. IGF I(insulin-like Igrowth Ifactors) I- I✅IGF-1, Iand IIGF-2, IIGF- 1 Imost Ibiologically Iactive. IIGF- 2 Icauses Ia Inegative Ieffect Ion Itissue Ithus Ibalancing IIGF- 1

In Iregards Ito Ithe Ikidneys, Iwhat Imutations Icause ISIADH? I- I✅Mutations Iin Iarginine Ivasopressin I(AVP) Igenes Ilead Ito Ichronic Iactivation Iof Itubular IV2 Ireceptor Iand Iresults Iin Iexcessive Ifree Iwater Ireabsorption. In ISIADH Iosmolality Iis Ihigher Iin Iurine Ithan Iin Iplasma, Ithat Iis Iwhy Iurine Iis I___________________. I- I✅concentrated In Ithe Iliver Ithe Itriglycerides Ican Ibe Ihydrolyzed Ito Iglycerol Iand Ifree Ifatty Iacids Iand Iused Ito Iproduce I- I✅metabolic Ienergy I(ATP), Ior Ithey Ican Ibe Ireleased Iinto Ithe Ibloodstream Ibound Ito Iproteins I(lipoproteins). In Ithe Iliver, Iunconjugated Ibilirubin Imoves Ifrom Iplasma Iin Ithe Isinusoids Iinto Ithe Ihepatocyte. IWithin Ihepatocytes Iit Ijoins Iwith Iglucuronic Iacid Ito Iform I- I✅conjugated Ibilirubin, Iwhich Iis Iwater Isoluble In Ithe Iplasma, Ibilirubin Ibinds Ito Ialbumin Iand Iis Iknown Ias I- I✅unconjugated Ibilirubin, Ior Ifree Ibilirubin, Iwhich Iis Ilipid Isoluble INAPPROPRIATE IAMOUNTS Iof Ihormone Idelivered Ito Itarget Icells Iresults Iin Ialterations Iof Ihormone Iregulation. IInadequate Ihormone Isynthesis Ileads Ito Iinadequate Iquantity Iof Ihormone Iprecursors, Isecretory Icell Iunable Ito Iconvert Iprecursors Ito Iactive Ihormone. I- I✅ Incretins Ienhance Ibeta-cell Imass Iand Ireplenish Iintracellular Istores Iof Iwhat? I- I✅Insulin. Ingested Ifat Iabsorbed Iby Ilacteals Iin Ithe Iintestinal Ivilli Ienters Ithe Iliver Ithrough Ithe Ilymphatics, Iprimarily Ias I- I✅triglycerides Initial Istages Iof Ialdosterone Isynthesis Ioccur Iin Ithe Izone______and Izona______. I- I✅fasciculate Iand Ireticularis Insulin Ifacilitates Irate Iof Iglucose Iuptake Iinto Imany Icells Iwithin Ithe Ibody. IInsulin Ibinds Iwith Iwith Ienzyme-linked Iplasma Imembrane Ireceptor Ithat Icontains Iwhat? I- I✅tyrosine Ikinase Ion Ithe Icytosolic Isurface Insulin Iis Ia I__________________hormone. I- I✅Anabolic Insulin Iis Inot Ibound Ito Ia I_________________. I- I✅Carrier Iin Iplasma Insulin Iis Isecreted Iwhen Iglucose, Iamino Iacids, IGI Ihormones I(glucoagon, Igastrin, Icholecystokinin, Isecretin) Iincrease Ior Idecrease? I- I✅Increase Insulin Ipromotes Ithe Isynthesis Iof Iwhat? I- I✅Proteins, Icarbs, Ilipids, Iand Inucleic Iacids. It Ialso Ipromotes Ithe Iuptake Iof Iglucose

Insulin Ireceptor Ibinding Isends Ia Icascade Iof Isignals Ito Iactivate Iwhat? I- I✅Glucose Itransporters Ifor Ientry Iof Iglucose Iinto Ithe Icell. Intestinal Imotility Iis Iregulated Iby Ithe I- I✅enteric Inervous Isystem, Ivagal Istimulation, Iand Ihormones Intracellular Idisorder Imay Iinvolve Iacquired Idefects Iin I____________________signaling Icascades Ior Iinadequate Isynthesis Iof I__________________messenger, Isuch Ias IcAMP. I- I✅post-receptor Isignaling second Imessenger Intrinsic Ifactor I(IF), Ia Imucoprotein Iproduced Iby Iparietal Icells, Icombines Iwith Ivitamin IB Iin Ithe Istomach.It Iis Irequired Ifor Ithe Iabsorption Iof Ivitamin I- I✅B12 Iby Ithe Iileum. Intrinsic Ifactor Iis Inecessary Ifor Ithe Iintestinal Iabsorption Iof I- I✅vitamin IB12 Iand Igastroferrin Ifacilitates Ismall Iintestinal Iabsorption Iof Iiron. is Icharacterized Iby Iexcessive Ialdosterone Isecretion Iby Ithe Iadrenal Icortex. IThere Iare Iboth Iprimary Iand Isecondary Iforms Iof Ihyperaldosteronism. I- I✅Hyperaldosteronism Islet Iof ILangerhans Ihave Iwhat Ifour Itypes Iof Ihormone- Isecreting Icells? I- I✅Alpha Icells I(glucagon), Ibeta Icells I(insulin Iand Iamylin) Idelta Icells I(gastrin Iand Isomatostatin Iand IF Icells I( Isecrete Ipancreatic Ipolypeptide). Kupffer Icells Iin Ithe Isinusoids Iof Ithe Iliver I- I✅which Iare Ipart Iof Ithe Imononuclear Iphagocyte Isystem Iand Iare Ithe Ilargest Ipopulation Iof Itissue Imacrophages Iin Ithe Ibody. IThey Iare Ibactericidal Iand Icentral Ito Iinnate Iimmunity. Labs Iin Ihypothyroidism? I- I✅T3 Iand IT4 Iare Idecreased Iand ITSH Iis Iincreased. Lack Iof IFSH Iand ILH Icauses Iwhat? I- I✅Lack Iof Imenses Iin Iwomen Iand Ispermatogenesis Iin Imen. Lactate Idehydrogenase I(LDH) I- I✅catalyzes Ithe Iconversion Iof Ilactate Ito Ipyruvate; ILDH Iis Iwidely Idistributed Ithroughout Ithe Ibody Iand Idifferent Iisoenzymes Iare Ifound Iin Idifferent Itissues Low Iglucose Ilevels Iand Isympathetic Istimulation Icause_________________release I- I✅glucagon Luteinizing IHormone I(LH) I- I✅Ovulation, Iprogesterone Iproduction I(in Iglanulosa Icells) Medications Ithat Iblock Ithe Ieffect Iof Idopamine Iat Ithe Ipituitary Ican Iincrease I_____________level. I- I✅Prolactin

Melatonin I- I✅In IPineal IGland. IIts' Irelease Iis Istimulated Iby Idarkness, Iand Iinhibited Iby Ilight Iexposure. IIt Iis Isynthesized Ifrom Itryptophan Iwhich Iis Ifirst Iconverted Ito Iserotonin Ithan Ito Imelatonin. Metabolic Isyndrome Iis Iwhat? I- I✅Combination Iof Icentral Iobesity, Idyslipidemia, Iprehypertension, Iand Ielevated IFBS. Mineralocorticoids I(Aldosterone) Isteroids Idirectly Iaffect Iwhat? I- I✅ion Itransport Iby Iepithelial Icells, Icausing Isodium Iretention Iand Ipotassium Iand Ihydrogen Iloss MODY Iincludes I 6 Ispecific Iwhat? I- I✅Autosomal Idominant Imutations Iincluding Igenes Ifor Ihepatocyte Inuclear Ifactor-1a Most Icommon Icause Iof IAddison Idisease. I- I✅The Imost Icommon Icause Iof IAddison Idisease Iin Ithe IUnited IStates Iis Iautoimmune Idestruction Iof Ithe Iadrenal Icortex Iand Iit Iis Imore Icommon Iin Iwomen. Most Icommon Icause Iof Ihypothyroidism Iin IU.S.? I- I✅autoimmune Ithyroiditis I(Hashimoto Idisease, Ior Ichronic Ilymphocytic Ithyroiditis) Most Icommon Icause Iof Ihypothyroidism? I- I✅Iodine Ideficiency I(endemic Igoiter) Imost Icommon Icause Iworldwide Ibut Iin IU.S. Iit Iis Inot. Most Icommon Icause Iof Isecondary Ihyperparathyroid Idisease Iis___________. I- I✅Kidney Ifailure I(with Ifailure Iof IGFR) Iwhich Iresults Iin Ihyperphospatemia, Ireduced IVit ID, Iand Ihypocalcemia Iand Icauses Ian Iincrease Iin IPTH Isecretion. Most Icommon Icauses Iof IDKA? I- I✅infection, Itrauma, Isurgery, Ior IMI Most Icommon Iof Ithe Ihormonally Iactive Ipituitary Itumors Iare Icalled Iwhat? I- I✅prolactinomas I(hormones Ithat Isecrete Iprolactin) Ithey Iare Ieither Imicroprolactinomas I(<1cm) Ior Imacroprolactinomas I(>1cm). Myxedema Icoma I(describe) I- I✅Medical Iemergency, Idiminished ILOC, Icaused Iby Isevere Ihypothyroidism. Nephrogenic IDI Iis Icaused Iby? I- I✅Insensitivity Iof Ithe Irenal Icollecting Itubules Ito IADH. Nerves Ifrom Iboth Ithe______________and I____________________divisions Iof Ithe I______________________innervate Ithe Ipancreatic Iislets. I- I✅sympathetic Iand Iparasympathetic Iof Ithe IANS. Osmoreceptors I- I✅

Other Igenetic Ifactors Iassociated Iwith IDM? I- I✅Down, IKlinefelter, ITurner, IWolfram Isyndromes Other Ineurons Iare Iintrinsic; Ithat Iis, Ithey Ioriginate Iwithin Ithe Istomach Iand Irespond Ito Ilocal Istimuli Iand Iare Icomponents Iof Ithe Ienteric Inervous Isystem. IExtrinsic Isympathetic Ifibers Ireach Ithe Istomach Ithrough Ithe I- I✅celiac Iplexus I(solar Iplexus), Iwhereas Iextrinsic Iparasympathetic Ifibers Ienter Ithrough Ithe Igastric Ibranch Iof Ithe Ivagus Inerve. Oxytocin I- I✅Responsible Ifor Icontraction Iof Iuterus Iand Imilk Iejection Iin Ilactation, Iand Imay Ieffect Isperm Imotility Iin Imen. IOxytocin Iis Istimulated Iby Isucking Iand Imechanical Idistention Iof Ifemaile Ireproduction Itract. IOxytocin Ibinds Ito Imyoepithelial Icells Iin Imammary Itissues Iand Icauses Ithe Icontraction Iof Ithose Icells. I"let Idown" Ireflex Pancreas Ihouses Ithe I________of I___________. I- I✅Islets Iof ILangerhans Pancreatic Isomatostatin Idiffers Ifrom Ihypothalamic Isomatostatin Iin Ithat Ihypothalamic Iinhibits Irelease Iof I____________hormone Iand I________. I- I✅Growth, ITSH Pancreatic ISomatostatin Iis Iimportant Iin Iwhat? I- I✅essential Iin Icarb, Ifat Iand Iprotein Imetabolism I(homeostasis Iof Iingested Inutrients) Pancreatic Isomatostatin Iis Iinvolved Iin Iregulating I______________and I_______________cell Ifunction. I- I✅Alpha Iand IBeta Iby Iinhibiting Isecretion Iof Iinsulin, Iglucagon, Iand Ipancreatic Ipolypeptide. Parasympathetic Istimulation Iof IBeta Icells Icauses Ia Irelease Iof? I- I✅Insulin Parathyroid Igland Iproduce Iwhat? I- I✅PTH Parathyroid Iglands. I- I✅ 2 Ipairs Ibut Imay Irange Ifrom I 2 - 6. ILocated Ibehind Ithe Iupper Ipole Iand Ilower Ipole Iof Ithe Ithryoid Igland. Parathyroid Ihormone Irelated Ipeptide I(PTHrP)? I- I✅Synthesized Iin Iadults Iand Ifetal Itissue Iand Iutilizes Isame Ireceptors Ias IPTH. IPlays Iimportant Irole Iin Iplacental Icalcium Itransport, Ilactation, Itooth Idevelopment Iin Ithe Ifetus. Pathogenic Imechanisms Iaffecting Itarget Icell Iresponse Ifor Ilipid-soluble Ihormones, Isuch Ias Ithyroid Ihormone Ior Iglucocorticoids, Iare Irecognized__________often Ithan Ithose Iaffecting Iwater-soluble Ihormones. I- I✅Less Pathophysiologic Iaffects Iof ISIADH. I- I✅Result Iin Ienhanced Irenal Iwater Iretention. IWater Iretention Iresults Ifrom Ithe Iaction Iof IADH Ion Irenal Icollecting Iducts Iwhere Ipermeability Ito Iwater Iis Iincreased, Iincreasing Iwater Ireabsorption Iby Ithe Ikidneys.

Pepsin I- I✅Acetylcholine, Ithrough Ivagal Istimulation Iduring Ithe Icephalic Iand Igastric Iphases, Iis Ithe Istrongest Istimulation Ifor Ipepsin Isecretion. Peptide Ihormones, Iincluding I- I✅motilin, Igastrin, Isecretin, Iand Icholecystokinin, Ifacilitate Iintestinal Imotility. Pineal IGland I- I✅Located Iin Ithe Ibrain Iand Icomposed Iof Iphotoreceptive Icells Ithat Isecrete Imelatonin. Pituitary Igland Irelies Ion Iblood Iflow Ifrom Iwhere? I- I✅Portal Iblood Iflow Ifrom Ihypothalamus. Pituitary IHormones I- I✅TSH, IGH, IACTH, IFSH, ILH, IOxytocin, IADH, IMelanocyte IStimulating IHormone Pituitary Istalk I- I✅contains Iaxons Iof Ineurons Ithat Ioriginate Iin Ithe Isupraoptic Iand Iparaventricular Inuclei Iof Ithe Ihypothalamus. Polycystic Iovarian Isyndrome Ialso Iplays Ia Irole Iin Ideveloping______________ I- I✅diabetes, Iand Iinsulin Iresistance Posterior IPituitary I(neurohypophysis) I- I✅Arises Ifrom I3rd Iventricle Iof Ibrain, Iconsists Iof Ithree Iparts, Imedian Ieminence, Ipituitary Istalk, Iand Iinfundibular Iprocess I(pars Inervosa Ior Ineural Itube). IMedian Ieminence Iis Icomposed Imainly Iof Inerve Iendings Iof Iaxons Ithat Iarise Iprimarily Ifrom Iventral Ihypothalamus. Precursor Imolecule Ito Icalcitonin Iis Iwhat? I- I✅procalcitonin I(stress Ihormone) Iwhich Iis Ielevated Iin Iinfection Iand Iinflammation Iand Ican Iaid Iin Idiagnosing Idisease. Primary Irole Iof Ivitamin ID3 I- I✅Serves Ias Icofactor Iwith IPTH Ito Iincrease IGI Iabsorption Iof Icalcium. IVitamin ID3 Ialso Iincreased IPTH-mediated Iosteoclast Istimulation. Products Iof Ifat Idigestion, Iwhich Iare Iformed Iin Ithe Iduodenum Iby Ithe Iaction Iof Ibile Ifrom Ithe Iliver Iand Ienzymes Ifrom Ithe Ipancreas, Istimulate Ithe Isecretion Iof I- I✅cholecystokinin Proinsulin I- I✅A Iprecursor Ito Isynthesis Iof Iinsulin Iby Ibeta Icells Proinsulin Iis Icomposed Iof Iwhat Ipeptides? I- I✅A Ipeptide, IB Ipeptide Iand IC Ipeptide Iand Itwo Idisulfide Ibonds. Prolactin-releasing Ifactor I(PRF) I- I✅Stimulate Isecretion Iof Iprolactin Prolactin, I- I✅Milk Iproduction

Prostaglandins Iand Initric Ioxide Iprotect Ithe Imucosal Ibarrier Iby Istimulating Ithe Isecretion Iof I- I✅mucus Iand Ibicarbonate Iand Iby Iinhibiting Ithe Isecretion Iof Iacid. Protein Isynthesis Irequires Ithe Ipresence Iof Iall Ithe Iessential Iamino Iacids I(obtained Ionly Ifrom Ifood), Ias Iwell Ias I- I✅nonessential Iamino Iacids Protein Iwasting Iis Icaused Iby Ithe Icatabolic Ieffects Iof Icortisol Ion Iperipheral Itissues. IMuscle Iwasting Ileads Ito Imuscle Iweakness Iand Iis Iespecially Iobvious Iin Ithe Imuscles Iof Ithe Iextremities Iwith Ithinning Iof Ithe Ilimbs. I- I✅Cushing ISyndrome PTH Ihormone Ieffects Iare Imediated Iby Iwhat? I- I✅Adenylyl Icyclase Isystem PTH Isecretion Istimulates Iwhat? IIn Iacute Ihypocalcemia Ito Irelease Ireceptor Iactivator Ifor Inuclear Ifactor-kappa Ibeta Iligan I(RANKL) Iand Imacrophage Icolony Istimulating Ifactor Iwhich Iresults Iin Iosteoclasts Iproliferation, Imaturation Iand Irelease Iof Iacidic Ienzymes, Isuch Ias Icathepsin. I- I✅osteoblasts PTH Iworks Iwith IVitamin I? I- I✅Vitamin ID Ito Iincrease Iserum Icalcium Iconcentration Iand Idecrease Iserum Iphosphate Ilevel. Pulmonary Idisorders Iassociated Iwith ISIADH Iinclude> I- I✅pneumonia, ITB, Iasthma, ICF, Irest Ifail. Irequiring Iventilation. pyloric Isphincter, I- I✅relaxes Ias Ifood Iis Ipropelled Iinto Ithe Iduodenum. Random Iplasma Iglucose Iof________is Ihyperglycemic. I- I✅>200mg/dl Receptor-associated Idisorder Ihave Ibeen Iidentified Iprimarily Iin I_____________________hormones I- I✅water Isoluble, Isuch Ias Iinsulin Regulation Iof Ianterior Ipituitary Iis Iachieved Iby: I- I✅feedback Ifrom Ihypothalamic Ireleasing-inhibitory Ihormones Iand Ifactors, Iand Ifeedback Ifrom Itarget Igland Ihormones I(cortisol, Iestrogen). Screening Ifor Iwhat Iis Iimportant Iin Ihyperparathyroidism? I- I✅Increased IPTH Iscreening Ifor Iosteoporosis. Secretion Iof Icortisol Iis Iregulated Iby? I- I✅Hypothalamus Iand Ianterior Ipituitary Secretion Iof IInsulin Iis Iregulated Iby? I- I✅Chemical, Ihormonal, Iand Ineural Icontrol. Segmentation Iconsists Iof Ilocalized Irhythmic Icontractions Iof Ithe Icircular Ismooth Imuscles Iand Ioccurs Imore Ifrequently Ithan I- I✅peristalsis

SELECTED IHORMONES IAND INEUROTRANSMITTERS IOF ITHE IDIGESTIVE

ISYSTEM∗ I- I✅Gastrin IHistamine, Isomatostatin, Iacetylcholine, Ibombesin(Gastric Ireleasing Ipeptide), Iacetylcholine, ISecretin, ICholecystokinin SIADH Iis Iassociated Iwith Iwhat? I- I✅Ectopic Isecretion Iof IADH Iby Iseveral Itypes Iof Itumor Icells. Solids, Ifats, Iand Inonisotonic Isolutions Idelay Igastric I- I✅emptying. Somatostatin I- I✅Inhibits Irelease Iof Igrowth Ihormone Iand ITSH Somatostatin? I- I✅Produced Iby Idelta Icells Iof Ipancreas SOURCES IOF IDIGESTIVE IENZYMES I- I✅Salivary IGlands: IAmylase ILingual Ilipase Stomach: IPepsin, IGastric ILipase Pancreas: IAmylase, ITrypsin, ILipase-colipase Ietc Stellate Icells I- I✅contain Iretinoids I(vitamin IA), Iare Icontractile Iin Iliver Iinjury, Iregulate Isinusoidal Iblood Iflow, Imay Iproliferate Iinto Imyofibroblasts, Iand Iparticipate Iin Iliver Ifibrosis. Stress Iincreases_____________secretion. I- I✅ACTH Swallowing Icauses Ithe Ifundus Ito Irelax I(receptive Irelaxation) Ito Ireceive Ia Ibolus Iof Ifood Ifrom Ithe Iesophagus. IRelaxation Iis Icoordinated Iby Iefferent, Inonadrenergic, Inoncholinergic Ivagal Ifibers Iand Iis Ifacilitated Iby I- I✅gastrin Iand Icholecystokinin, Itwo Ipolypeptide Ihormones Isecreted Iby Ithe Igastrointestinal Imucosa. Swallowing Ioccurs Iin Itwo Iphases: I- I✅the Ioropharyngeal I(voluntary) Iphase Iand Ithe Iesophageal I(involuntary) Iphase. IDuring Ithe Ioral Iand Ipharyngeal Iphases Iof Iswallowing, Ifood Iis Isegmented Iinto Ia Ibolus Iby Ithe Itongue Iand Iforced Iposteriorly Itoward Ithe Ipharynx Ias Ithe Itongue Ipushes Iupward Iagainst Ithe Ihard Ipalate. Symptoms Iof ISIADH I- I✅Hypotonic I(dilution) Ihyponatremia Iand Ihypervolemia Iand Iweight Igain. IThirst, Iimpaired Itaste, Ianorexia, Idyspnea, Ifatigue Iand INA Ithat Idecreased Ifrom I 140 Ito I 130 Irapidly. Hypoosmolarity. Syndrome Iof IInappropriate IAntidiuretic IHormone ISecretion Icauses Iwhat? I- I✅Causes Ihigh Ilevels Iof IADH. ICan Icomplete Imalignancy, Ipulmonary Idisorders, ICNS Idisorders Iand Isurgical Iprocedures Iand Ithe Iuse Iof Icertain Imedications. T3 Iand IT4 Ithyroid Ihormones Iregulate Imany Ifunctions Iin Ibody. I- I✅

The Iadrenal Icortex Isecretes Iseveral Isteroid Ihormones, Iincluding Ithe Iglucocorticoids I(mainly Icortisol), Imineralocorticoids, I(aldosterone), Iand Ithe Iadrenal Iandrogens Iand Iestrogens. IThese Ihormones Iare Iall Isynthesized Ifrom I__________________. I- I✅Cholesterol The Icells Iof Ithe Iadrenal Icortex Iare Istimulated Iby Ithe I________________hormone____________. I- I✅Anterior Ipituitary Ihormone IACTH The Ichief Icells Iwithin Ithe Iglands I- I✅secrete Ipepsinogen, Ian Ienzyme Iprecursor Ithat Iis Ireadily Iconverted Ito Ipepsin I(a Iproteolytic Ienzyme) Iin Ithe Igastric Ifluid. The Idecrease Iin Ithe Imetabolic Iclearance Iof I______________in Ithe Iadrenal Iglands Iis Iage-related I- I✅glucocorticoids The Idigestion Iand Iabsorption Iof Ifat Ioccur Iin Ifour Iphases: I- I✅(1) Iemulsification Iand Ilipolysis, I(2) Imicelle Iformation, I(3) Ifat Iabsorption, Iand I(4) Iresynthesis Iof Itriglycerides Iand Iphospholipids. The Iexocrine Ipancreas Iproduces Ienzymes Ineeded Ifor Ithe Icomplete Idigestion Iof I- I✅carbohydrates, Iproteins, Iand Ifats. The Ifalciform Iligament Iseparates Ithe Iright Iand Ileft Ilobes Iand Iattaches Ithe Iliver Ito Ithe I- I✅anterior Iabdominal Iwall The Ifour Iparts Iof Ithe Icolon Iare Ithe I- I✅ascending Icolon, Itransverse Icolon, Idescending Icolon, Iand Isigmoid Icolon. THE IGI ITRACT ICONSISTS IOF ITHE_____________________ I- I✅consists Iof Ithe Imouth, Iesophagus, Istomach, Ismall Iintestine, Ilarge Iintestine, Irectum Iand Ianus. The Iintestinal Itract Iis Isterile Iat Ibirth Ibut Ibecomes Icolonized Iwith I- I✅Escherichia Icoli, IClostridium Iwelchii, Iand IStreptococcus Iwithin Ia Ifew Ihours. IWithin I 3 Ito I 4 Iweeks Iafter Ibirth, Ithe Inormal Iflora Iare Iestablished. The Iliver Ialters Iexogenous Iand Iendogenous Ichemicals I(e.g., Idrugs), Iforeign Imolecules, Iand Ihormones Ito Imake Ithem Iless Itoxic Ior Iless Ibiologically Iactive. IThis Iprocess, Icalled I- I✅metabolic Idetoxification I(biotransformation), Idiminishes Iintestinal Ior Irenal Itubular Ireabsorption Iof Ipotentially Itoxic Isubstances Iand Ifacilitates Itheir Iintestinal Iand Irenal Iexcretion. The Iliver Icontributes Ito Ithe Istability Iof Iblood Iglucose Ilevels Iby Ireleasing Iglucose Iduring Istates Iof I- I✅hypoglycemia I(low Iblood Iglucose Ilevels) Iand Itaking Iup Iglucose Iduring Istates Iof Ihyperglycemia I(high Iblood Iglucose Ilevels) Iand Istoring Iit Ias Iglycogen I(glyconeogenesis) Ior Iconverting Iit Ito Ifat

The Iliver, Iwhich Iweighs I 1200 Ito I 1600 Ig, Iis Ithe Ilargest I- I✅solid Iorgan Iin Ithe Ibody The Imajor Ifunctions Iof Igastric Ihydrochloric Iacid Iare Ito Idissolve I- I✅food Ifibers, Iact Ias Ia Ibactericide Iagainst Iswallowed Iorganisms, Iand Iconvert Ipepsinogen Ito Ipepsin. The Iparietal Icells I(oxyntic Icells) Iwithin Ithe Iglands Isecrete I- I✅hydrochloric Iacid, Iintrinsic Ifactor, Iand Igastroferrin. The Ipharynx Iand Iupper Ithird Iof Ithe Iesophagus Icontain I- I✅striated Imuscle Iinnervated Iby Iskeletal Imotor Ineurons. The Iphases Iof Igastric Isecretion Iare Ithe I- I✅cephalic Iphase, Igastric Iphase, Iand Iintestinal Iphase The Iratio Iof I__________ Ito Iglucagon Iin Ithe Iportal Ivein Icontrols Ihepatic Iglucose Iand Ifat Imetabolism Iin IType II IDM. I- I✅insulin The Ismall Iintestine Iis Iabout I 5 Ito I 6 Im Ilong Iand Iis Ifunctionally Idivided Iinto Ithree Isegments: I- I✅the Iduodenum, Ijejunum, Iand Iileum The Istomach Imucosa Iis Iimpermeable I- I✅to Iwater, Ibut Ithe Istomach Ican Iabsorb Ialcohol Iand Iaspirin Iand Iother Inonsteroidal Ianti-inflammatory Iagents. The Iunion Iof Ithe Icommon Ibile Iduct Iand Ipancreatic Iduct Iis Iat Ithe I- I✅papilla Ior Iampulla Iof IVater The Ivagus Inerve I- I✅provides Iparasympathetic Iinnervation Iand Ibranches Iof Ithe Iceliac Iplexus Iinnervate Ithe Istomach Isympathetically. The Ivagus Inerve Ireleases IACh Iand Istimulates Ithe Isecretion Iof Ihistamine Iand Igastrin- releasing Ipeptide I(GRP), Iwhich Istimulates Irelease Iof I- I✅gastrin There Iis Ian Ienvironmental-genetic Iinteraction Iresponsible Ifor Itype________diabetes, Iwhat Iare Ithe Irisk Ifactors? I- I✅Type III, Iage, Iweight, Ilifestyle, Iactivity, Iand Ifamily Ihistory.. Those Iwith ICushings Ido Inot Iincrease I________and________secretion Iin Iresponse Ito Ia Istressor. I- I✅ACTH, Iand Icortisol Thyroid Ihormone I(TH) Iis Iregulated Iby: I- I✅through Ia Inegative Ifeedback Iloop Iinvolving Ihypothalamus Thyroid Ihormone Iinhibit Iwhat Ihormones? I- I✅TRH Iand ITSH Iwhich Idecreased ITH Isynthesis Iand Isecretion.

Thyroid Ihormones Iaffect Imany Ibody Itissues Iand Iinfluence Ithe Igenetic Iexpression Iof Ispecific Iproteins. IThey Iaffect Icell Imetabolism Iby Ialtering Iwhat? I- I✅protein, Ifat Iand Iglucose Imetabolism, Iand Ias Ia Iresult Iheat Iproduction Iand Ioxygen Iconsumption Iare Iincreased. Thyroid Ihormones Ihave Ia I____________feedback Ieffect. I- I✅Negative Thyrotropin-releasing Ihormone I(TRH) I- I✅synthesized Iand Istored Iwithin Ithe Ihypothalamus Iinitiates Inegative Ifeedback Iloop To Iachieve Iregulation Iof Iserum Icalcium Iconcentration, IPTH Iacts Idirectly Ion Iwhat? I- I✅Bone Iand IKidneys Transient ISIADH Iis Iespecially Icommon Iafter Iwhat Itype Iof Isurgery? I- I✅pituitary TRH Ilevels Iincrease Iwith Iexposure Ito Iwhat? I- I✅Cold Ior Istress Iand Idecreased Ilevels Iof IT4. Tropic IHormones Iof IAnterior IPituitary Iand Itheir Ifunction I- I✅ACTH, IMelanocyte- stimulating IHormone I(MSH, ISomatotropic Ihormones, IGH, Iprolactin, ILH, ITSH, IFSH, Iglycoprotein Ihormones TSH I- I✅Increased Iproduction Iand Isecretion Iof Ithyroid Ihormone TSH Iis Ia Iglycoprotein Isynthesized Iand Istored Iwhere? I- I✅Anterior Ipituitary Tumors Iassociated Iwith ISIADH I- I✅small Icell Icarcinoma Iof Ilung, Iduodenum, Istomach, Ipancrease. IBladder Icancer, Iprostate, Iendometrium, Iand Ilymphomas Iand Isarcomas Two Iof Ithe Imost Iimportant Iendocrine Ichanges Iassociated Iwith Iaging Ieffect Ithe I_________________gland Iand Ithe I____________. I- I✅Thyroid Igland Iand Ipancreas Two Iseparate Iportions Iof IAdrenal Iglands Iinclude Iwhat? I- I✅outer Icortex Iand Iinner Imedulla Type II IDM Iis Ia Islowly Iprogressive I______________ I- I✅Autoimmune IT Icell-mediated Idisease Ithat Ioccurs Iin Igenetically Isusceptible Iindividuals. Type II Iis Ia Iabsolute______________deficiency Iresulting Ifrom I____________cell Idestruction. I- I✅Insulin, Ibeta Icell Type III Iis I______________resistance. I- I✅Insulin Type III Iis Istrongly Iassociated Iwith? I- I✅Genetics, Ihypertension Iand Idyslipidemia

Urine Iis I________________in ISIADH I- I✅concentrated Vitamin ID Ideficiency Icauses: I- I✅infections, Icancer, Iasthma, Iheart Idisease, Idementia, Idiabetes, Ipain, Iautoimmune Idisorders. Vitamin ID Iplays Iimportant Irole Iand Iis Iessential Ifor I_________health. I- I✅Bone. Water ISoluble IHormones I- I✅Need I2nd IMessenger Ito Itransport Iacross Iphospholipid Imembranes Water Isoluble Ivitamins Iinclude I- I✅B Ivitamins, IC, IFolic IAcid, INiacin, IPantothenic Iacid, IBiotin What Iacts Ias Ia Istimulant Ito Isecrete IPTH Iin Ipeople Iwith Inormal Icalcium Ilevels? I- I✅Hypomagnesemia What Ialso Istimulates Iglucagon Irelease? I- I✅Amino Iacids Isuch Ias Ialanine, Iglycine, Iand Iasparagine. IAlso Ia Iprotein-rich Imeal. What Iare Icharacteristics Iof IAddison's? I- I✅Addison Idisease Iis Icharacterized Iby Iinadequate Icorticosteroid Iand Imineralocorticoid Isynthesis Iand Ielevated Iserum IACTH Ilevels. What Iare Iother Icauses Iof IAddison Idisease? I- I✅Other Icauses Iinclude Iinfections I(tuberculosis, Ifungal Iinfections, Ihuman Iimmunodeficiency Ivirus I[HIV]), Iinfiltrative Idiseases I(amyloidosis, Imetastatic Icarcinoma), Ior Ibilateral Iadrenal Ihemorrhage. What Iare Isome Icauses Iof Ihypopituitarism? I- I✅Shock, Ianeurysms, Isickle Icell, Ipregnancy Ican Icause Ipituitary Iinfarction. IAlso Itumors Ior Ilesions What Iare Isome Icharacteristics Iof Iprimary Ihyperparathyroidism? I- I✅Renal Icolic, Inephrolithiasis, IUTI's, Irenal Ifailure, Iabdominal Ipain, IPUD, Ipancreatitis, Ibone Idisease Imuscle Iweakness, Imyalgia, Ineuro Iand Ipsych Iproblems, Ipolyuria Iand Ipolydipsia, Iurine IPH Igreater Ithan I6. What Iare Ithe Ieffects Iof ITSH Ion Ithe Ithyroid? I- I✅increase Iin Irelease Iof Istored Ithyroid Ihormone, Iincrease Iin Iiodide Iuptake Iand Ioxidation, Iand Iincrease Iin Ithyroid Ihormone Isynthesis, Iincrease Iin Ithe Isynthesis Iand Isecretion Iof Iprostaglandins Iby Ithe Ithyroid. What Iare Ithe Iinsulin Icounter Iregulatory Ihormones? I- I✅catecholamines, Icortisol, Iglucagon, Iand IGH.

What Iare Ithe Iphysiological Iactions Iof Iprolactin? I- I✅breast Idevelopment Iduring Ipregnancy, Ipostpartum Imilk Iproduction, Iand Isuppression Iof Iovarian Ifunction Iin Inursing Iwomen. What Iare Ithe Ithree Itypes Iof IDiabetes IInsipidus? I- I✅Neurogenic I(hypothalamic), Inephrogenic I(renal), Iand Ipolydipsic I(polydipsia-polyuria Isyndrome) What Iare Ithree Ipairs Iof Isalivary Iglands? I- I✅The Ithree Ipairs Iof Isalivary Iglands I(the Isubmandibular, Isublingual, Iand Iparotid Iglands) I(Figure I 40 - 3) Isecrete Iabout I 1 IL Iof Isaliva Iper Iday. What Ibody Iparts Ido Inot Ineed Iinsulin Ifor Iglucose Itransport? I- I✅Brain, IRBC's, Ikidney, Iand Ieye Ilens. What Icauses Ineurogenic IDI? I- I✅Brain Itumors I(primary Ior Isecondary), Ianeurysms, Ithrombosis, Iinfection Iand Iimmunologic Idisorders What Ido Ithe Ipancreatic Ihormones Iregulate? I- I✅Carbs, Ifats Iand Iproteins What Idoes Icortisol Ido Iin Ithe Ibody? I- I✅Protects Ifrom Istress What Idoes Isaliva Iconsist Iof? I- I✅Saliva Iconsists Imostly Iof Iwater Ithat Icontains Ivarying Iamounts Iof Imucus, Isodium, Ibicarbonate, Ichloride, Ipotassium, Iand Isalivary Iα-amylase I(ptyalin), Ian Ienzyme Ithat Iinitiates Icarbohydrate Idigestion Iin Ithe Imouth Iand Istomach. What Ifactors Icause Ipost-op Itransient ISIADH Iduring Isurgery? I- I✅Fluid Iand Ivolume Ichanges, IIV Ifluids I(amount Iand Ityupe), Iand Inarcotic Ianalgesics. What Ihappens Iwith IPTH Iwhen Ia Iperson Iwith Ihypocalcemia Ihave Ihypomagnesium? I- I✅PTH Isecretion Iis Idecreased. What Ihormone Istimulates Isecretion Iof Iprolactin? I- I✅TRH I(thyroid Ireleasing Ihormone) What Iis IDiGeorge Isyndrome? I- I✅A Igenetic Isyndrome Iassociated Iwith Ihypoparathyroidism. What Iis IGLUT4? I- I✅Stored Iin Icellular Ivesicles Iuntil Iit Iis Ineeded Ito Ifacilitate Iglucose Idiffusion Iinto Icells. What Iis Iincretin? I- I✅Hormones Isecreted Ifrom Iendocrine Icells Iin Ithe IGI Itract Iin Ithe Ipresence Iof Icarbs, Iproteins Iand Ifats.

What Iis Ilocated Isolely Iin Ithe IGI Itract I- I✅Neurons Iforming Ithe Ienteric Inervous Isystem Iare Ilocated Isolely Iwithin Ithe Igastrointestinal Itract Iand Iare Icontrolled Iby Ilocal Iand Iautonomic Inervous Isystem Istimuli. What Iis IMODY? I- I✅Maturity Ionset Idiabetes Iof IYouth What Iis Ithe Ifunction Iof IAmylin? I- I✅Increases Isatiety, Iand Isuppresses Iglucagon Irelease Ifrom Ithe Ialpha Icells. Iit Ialso Icontributes Ito Iislet Icell Idestruction Ithrough Ithe Ideposition Iof Iabnormal Iamyloid Ipolypeptide Iin Ithe Ipancreas. What Iis Ithe Ifunction Iof IPTH? I- I✅The Ioverall Ieffect Iof IPTH Isecretion Iis Ito Iincrease Iserum Icalcium Iconcentration Iand Idecrease Iserum Iphosphate Ilevel. What Iis Ithe Imain Isecretory Iproduct Iof Ithe Iadrenal Icortex? I- I✅Cortisol What Iis Ithe Imost Icommon Iendocrine Imalignancy? I- I✅Thyroid Icarcinoma What Ilabs Iare Idone Ifor Idiagnosis Iof Icushings? I- I✅Urinary Ifree Icortisol Iconcentration I, IACTH, Icortisol. IRoutine Ilaboratory Iexaminations Imay Ireveal Ihyperglycemia, Iglycosuria, Ihypokalemia, Iand Imetabolic Ialkalosis. What Imedications Ican Iaffect Idopamine Ilevels? I- I✅Antipsychotics I(risperidone), Ichlorpromazine, Imetoclopramide, Itricyclics, Imethyldopa Iand Iestrogens. What Iorgan Ideactivates Icortisol? I- I✅The Iliver What Iother I 2 Ithings Iaffect IPTH Ilevels? I- I✅Magnesium Iand Iphosphate What Iother Imedication Ican Icause ISIADH, Iespecially Iin Iolder Iadults? I- I✅antidepressants, Iantipsychotics, Inarcotics, Ianesthetics, Ichemo Iagents, INSAIDs, Iquinolone Iantibiotics, Iand Isynthetic IADH Ianalogs. What Ipart Iof Ithe Ipancreas Iare Ialpha, Ibeta Iand Idelta Icells Imost Inumerous? I- I✅Anterior Ilobe Iof Ipancreas What Isolution I(IV) Icorrects Ilow Isodium? I- I✅Hypertonic Isaline, Iand Ifluid Irestriction When ITSH Iis Isecreted Iby Ithe Ianterior Ipituitary Iit Icirculates Ito Ibind Iwith Iwhat? I- I✅TSH Ireceptor Isites Ilocated Ion Iplasma Imembrane Iof Ithyroid Ifollicular Icells Which Iis Imost Icommon Ihyper Ior Ihypothyroidism? I- I✅Hypothyroidism I(primary Imost Iprevelant)

Which Iof Ithe Itwo Itypes Iof Ipituitary Itumors I(prolactinomas), Imicro Ior Imacro, Iare Imost Iinvasive? I- I✅Macroprolactinomas Icommonly Iexpand Iinto Ithe Ioptic Ichasm Iand Iinvade Ilocal Istructures. Which Itwo Ipeptides Ibecome Iinsulin? I- I✅A Iand IB Ipeptides Iwhich Ibecome Ibonded. Zona Ifasciculata I(of Iadrenal Igland) Ithe Imiddle Ilayer Iprimarily Isecretes_____________ I- I✅glucocorticoids Icortisol, Icortisone Iand Icorticosterone Zona Iglomerulosa I(of Iadrenal Igland) Ithe Iouter Ilayer Iprimarily Iproduces I__________________________. I- I✅Mineralocorticoid Ialdosterone Zona Ireticular, I(adrenal Igland) Iinner Ilayer, Isecretes____________. I- I✅mineralocorticoids I(aldosterone), Iadrenal Iandrogens Iand Iestrogens, Iand Iglucocorticoids.