NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21), Study Guides, Projects, Research of Nursing

Download NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) and more Study Guides, Projects, Research Nursing in PDF only on Docsity! NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) *Make sure that you understand all of the terms you are studying, if you don’t know what a term means, look it up before you continue studying. Take your thinking a step further by asking yourself “why” as you are reviewing material. This will lead to understanding of the material versus memorization which will better help you answer questions. Remember, this study guide does not mirror the exam and you are responsible for all course content; ensure that you have an understanding of concepts. That being said, if you complete and understand this study guide, you will be well prepared for the next exam. *Ensure that you understand all highlighted terms in each chapter * Answer the question and supplemental questions included with the original question Chapter 1: Introduction to Pathophysiology 1. What are the 7 steps of health? -Don’t smoke, avoid 2nd hand smoke -Eat 5-10 servings of vegetables & Fruit daily. High fiber, lower-fat foods. Limit alcoholic drinks to 1 or 2 a day. -Be active -Protect yourself & family from the sun -Follow cancer screening guidelines -Visit doctor or dentist if any change in normal state of health -Follow health & safety instructions at home and work when using, storing and disposing of hazardous materials. 2. What is the definition of disease? Deviation from normal state or homeostasis: structure or function of any part, organ, system (or combination of these) or from a state of wellness. 3. Describe what homeostasis is: maintenance of stable internal NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) environment of the body despite external changes. a. Which factors indicate how well the body is maintaining homeostasis? (3 listed) -Blood pressure -Body Temp -Fluid Balance 4. Describe the following & list examples: a. Primary Prevention: Prevention of disease or experiencing an injury in the first place (doctors, vaccines) Ex.) immunizations, screenings controlling potential hazards at home, education i. When is this implemented? Before disease is present b. Secondary Prevention: Baby aspirin-hypertension, frequent monitoring, modified work i. When is this implemented? After illness or risk factors have been diagnosed to prevent complications. To slow progress of disease, limit long- term disability and prevent re-injury. c. Tertiary Prevention: Pain management, support groups, rehab i. When is this implemented? Diagnosed after complication to prevent & preserve quality of life. Helping people manage complicated, long term health problems 5. What are the 3 major health professional organizations who conduct research, publish findings, track certain diseases and are responsible for signaling warning about predisposing conditions or current treatments? -United States Public Health Service -Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) -State & Local authorities *Findings are gathered by World Health Organization (WHO) 6. Describe each characteristic of disease: -Pathogenesis: development of the disease or events involved in tissue NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) e. Dysplasia: “dysfunctional” cells vary in size and shape w/in a tissue i. Ex: Pap smear f. Anaplasia: “undifferentiated cells” un.diff. cells with variable nuclear and cell structures i. Ex: Characteristic of cancer, basis for grading aggressiveness of tumors g. Neoplasia: “new growth” new growth of a tumor, these are differentiated cells i. Ex: malignant or benign tumors 11. Describe each term related to cell damage and list examples: a. Apoptosis: Programmed cell death b. Ischemia/Hypoxia Ischemia: reduced blood flow to tissue or organ due to circulatory obstruction blocked artery, resp. impairment (chest pain) (Oxygen, nutrients, WBC/RBC) Hypoxia: reduced oxygen in the tissue. Interferes with ATP production. Sodium pump stops as well as other cell functions. i. What is the difference between ischemia and hypoxia? Ischemia reduced blood flow & hypoxia reduced oxygen c. Physical injury: related to heat or mechanical pressures. Impair blood supply to cells or metabolic processes. Ex.) Radiation damages cells by altering chem. Constituents, changing DNA, toxic materials inside cell 12. What is necrosis? When a group of cells die a. Describe each type of necrosis and give examples: i. Liquefaction necrosis: dead cells liquefy due to certain cell enzymes Ex.) brain issue dies, cavities, ulcers ii. Coagulative necrosis (scar tissue): cell proteins are altered or denatured, cell keeps form for a little bit after death. Ex.) Heart attack due to lack of oxygen causing cell death. iii. Fat necrosis: fatty tissue broke down into fatty acids due to infection or certain NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) enzymes. Ex.) gangrene iv. Caseous necrosis: coagulation, with thick, yellowish cheesy substance forming. Ex.) TB (development of granuloma, small solid mass of macrophages&lymphocytes) 13. What is infarction? Area of dead cells remaining from lack of oxygen a. What happens to the tissue after it experiences infarction? It is replaced with scar tissue b. Is that tissue functional like the previous tissue that died off? No, b/c it is replaced by scar tissue. Scar tissue isn’t flexible. c. What is a common classic example of infarction? Heart attack 14. What is gangrene? Necrotic tissue invaded by bacteria a. Why is it so dangerous? Buildup of gases w/in a tissue reducing blood supply b. How is it treated? Surgically removed (amputation) sometimes antibiotics Chapter 2: Fluid Electrolyte and Acid-Base Imbalances 15. What is the difference between intracellular compartment (ICF) and extracellular compartment (ECF)? -ICF: fluid inside the cells. 40% in males 33% in females 40% in infants -ECF: fluid outside the cells. 20% in males 17% in females 30% in infants a. Where is the ECF found? -Intravascular Fluid (IVF) or blood -Interstitial fluid (ISF) or intercellular fluid “around” 15% in males 9% in females 25% in infants -Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) -Transcellular Fluids: In secretions of Pericardial cavity (heart), Synovial cavities (joints). Serves as lubrication. *60% of adults body weight is water *70% of infants body weight is water *Females-higher percentage of fatty tissue=lower water content than males 16. Where is the thirst mechanism controlled in the brain? In the Hypothalamus by the osmoreceptor cells that sense the internal environment (goes down w/ age) 17. Which hormone controls the amount of fluid leaving the body in urine? ADH (antidiuretic hormone) promotes reabsorption of water into the blood from the kidney tubules a. Where does the reabsorption of water take place? Kidney tubules into the blood 18. Describe the term, causes, and examples of the following: a. Edema: excessive amount of fluid in the interstitial compartment i. What are local effects (symptoms/clinical manifestations) of edema? -Swelling -Pitting edema: depression or “pit” on affected area when pressure is applied -Increased body weight -Functional Impairment: restricts movement, reduced vital capacity, impaired diastole -Impaired arterial circulation: ischemia leading to tissue break NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) -Early chronic renal failure Effects: Low Na levels: Impair nerve conduction=fluid imbalance in compartments=fatigue, muscle cramps, abdominal discomfort, nausea, vomiting -Decreased osmotic pressure in ECF=Fluid shift into cells leads to Hypovolemia & decreased BP -Cerebral edema: brain swelling Hypernatremia: Excessive Na level in blood an ECF “To much Sodium” more than 145mEq per liter Causes: Excess Na from ingestion of large amounts of Na w/out enough water intake or faster loss of water from the body than loss of Na. Imbalance in Na & water -Insufficient ADH (diabetes insipidus) = large vol. of dilute urine -Loss of thirst mechanism -Watery diarrhea -Prolonged periods of rapid respiration Effects: *fluid shift out of cells=increased osmotic press. Of interstitial/extracellular fluid -Weakness/agitation -Dry, rough mucous membranes -Increased BP -Decreased urine output b/c ADH is secreted manifestations can change depending on cause of problem/ If NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) caused by fluid loss due to lack of ADH urine output is high b. Potassium: intracellular cation, serum levels are low 3.5-5mEq. Intracellular concen level are 160mEq. Ingested in foods, excreted primarily in urine under influence of ADH, insulin promotes movement of potassium into cells. Potassium levels influenced by acid- base balance in body. Acidosis tends to shift potassium ions out of the cells into the extracellular fluids (hydrogen ions diffuse from blood-interstitial fluid b/c of high H concen in the blood, K+ is sent out of cell, excessive K+ in ICF diffuse into the blood leading to hyperkalemia) Acidosis promotes H+ excretion by kidneys & retention of K+ in the body and alkalosis tends to move more potassium into the cells. abnormal levels of K cause changes in cardiac conduction can be life threatening Hypokalemia: “To low Potassium” serum level less than 3.5mEq/L Causes: Excessive losses due to diarrhea -Diuresis assoc. w/ some diuretic drug. Pts may have to increase K+ intake -Excessive aldosterone or glucocorticoids-retaining sodium & excreting potassium Effects: Cardiac dysrhythmias-prolonged repolarization lead to cardiac arrest -Interferes with neuromuscular function-muscles less responsive to stimuli -Paresthesias: “pins and needles” -Decreased digestive tract motility: decreased appetite & nausea -Shallow Respirations -Impaired renal function: failure to concentrate urine with increased urine output (polyuria=to much water in urine) Hyperkalemia: “To much Potassium” serum level is greater than 5mEq/L Causes: Renal Failure -Deficit of aldosterone -“Potassium-sparing” diuretic drugs”: prevent K+ from being excreted in adequate amounts (get rid of water in urine & keep K+) -Leaking of ICF k+ into ECF (pts w/ extensive tissue damage) NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) -Prolonged or severe acidosis Effects: Cardiac dysrhythmias, may lead to cardiac arrest -muscle weakness, may lead to paralysis -Neuromuscular impairment -Fatigue, nausea, paresthesias c. Calcium: Extracellular cation, ingested in food, stored in bone, excreted in urine & feces, balance controlled by parathyroid hormone (PTH) & calcitonin, vitamin D promotes absorption from intestine, activated in kidneys Functions: structural strength for bones & teeth, stability of nerve membranes, muscle contractions, metabolic processes & enzyme reactions, blood clotting calcium increases, phosphate decreased. Calcium decreases phosphate increases Hypocalcemia: “To low calcium” serum level less than 4mEg/L Causes: Hypoparathyroidism: decreased parathyroid hormone=decreased intestinal calcium absorption -Malabsorption syndrome: decreased intestinal absorption of vitamin D or calcium -Deficient serum albumin -Increased pH level (alkalotic or basic) -Renal Failure: retention of phosphate causes loss of calcium; vitamin D is not activated=decrease intestinal absorption of calcium Effects: Increased permeability & excitability of nerve membranes- NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) alkalosis, hyperparathyroidism Effects: Neurological function impairment -Tremors -weak reflexes -paresthesias -confusion, anorexia, difficulty swallowing(dysphagia) Hyperphosphatemia: High serum levels of phosphate Causes: Renal failure f. Chloride: extracellular anion normal serum level 98-106mol/L -Chloride levels are related to sodium levels (High Na=High Cl) (Low Na=Low Cl) -Assists with bicarbonate ions to maintain acid-base balance by exchanging places as the blood circulates through the body Hypochloremia: Low serum chloride Causes: Alkalosis, vomiting when hydrochloric acid is lost from the stomach -Excessive perspiration assoc. w/ fever or hard labor on hot a day may lead to loss of sodium chloride=hyponatremia & hypochloremia also dehydration Hyperchloremia: Excessive chloride Causes: excessive intake of sodium chloride taken orally or intravenously, hypernatremia from other causes, leading to edema & weight gain NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) Chapter 21: Congenital and Genetic Disorders 20. Describe the difference between karyotype, genotype, and phenotype: Karyotype is the visual representation of chromosomes that are arranged in order of size, used to diagnosis chromosomal disorders. Genotype is the genetic info carried by the individual all cells except gametes. Phenotype is the physical appearance of individual’s characteristics this is the expression of genes. 21. Describe the difference between meiosis & mitosis: Meiosis (sexual repro) sperm & ovum receive 23 chromosomes, 1 chromosome from each pair, ovum is fertilized by sperm=zygote that has 46 chromosomes, or 23 pairs, of genetic info inherited from each parent. During mitosis (cell division) chromosome replicate and each daughter cell get a copy of DNA that is identical to the parent cell, same genetic info is carried on. 22. List examples of the following: a. Single-Gene Disorders: Trait controlled by one set of alleles, classified by inheritance patterns, single gene may control a limited function i. Autosomal dominant disorders: inheritance of one alleles causes disorder, only one parent needs to carry allele. Ex.) Huntington’s disease NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) ii. Autosomal recessive disorders: Both parents must pass on the allele for disorder. Heterozygous Cc & Cc parents are not affected of disease but possibility of passing recessive trait “c” onto children, they are a carrier OR Homozygous: cc & cc parents are affected & child has the disorder. Ex.) Cystic Fibrosis iii. X-linked dominant disorders (can happen in male & female): Inherited as a dominant allele on the X chromosome, mutation causes affected X chromosome to appear constricted or broken. Ex.) Fragile X chromosome iv. X-linked recessive disorders: Allele carried on X chromosome not Y chromosome. Heterozygous males lacking matching unaffected gene on the Y chromosome XA Y=normal, Xa Y=affected male. Heterozygous females Xa XA=carriers. Homozygous recessive female may be affected Xa Xa. Ex.) Hemophilia A b. Multifactorial Disorders: Genes/ genetic influences combined with environmental factors. Ex.) cleft palate c. Chromosomal Disorders: Extra or missing chromosomes on a pair of chromosomes. Ex.) Down syndrome 23. Explain the probability of a child being affected by the following: a. Autosomal recessive disorders NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) system=increased capillary permeability, loss of vascular fluid & endotoxic shock. 30. How do we try to limit bacterial growth? Besides antibiotics. Locate/remove or isolate reservoir of infection -Identify & restrict access to contamination -Reduce contact between infected persons & non-infected persons -block portals of exit/entry -Remove or block modes of transmission -Reduce susceptibility by immunizations, adequate nutrition & access to health care 31. Do viruses require a living host? Why? Yes, uses the host’s cell to synthesize viral proteins & nucleic acids (replication). 32. Why is it difficult to become immune or get the right vaccine for certain viruses? What do they do to prevent this immunity? What are some examples? Viruses are constantly changing during replication. They also lack their own metabolic processes/structures that would normally be attacked by drugs. 33. What is the candida fungi? Yeast a. What infections can it cause? Thrush (oral infection), vaginal infections (yeast infection) 34. What is the purpose of resident (normal) flora? Help in preventing other or foreign organisms from growing or forming a colony 35. What 3 areas of the body do not have normal flora and NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) should be sterile? Blood, cerebrospinal fluid, lungs 36. Describe the different modes of transmission for infection: a. Direct contact: Touching infectious lesion, sexual activity, contact w/ infected blood or bodily secretions. b. Indirect contact: Intermediary object or organism, contaminated by hand or food, or fomite-inanimate object (toys, phones, stethoscope etc.) c. Droplet transmission: Resp. or salivary secretions are expelled from infected individual (coughing, sneezing etc.) d. Aerosol transmission: “airborne” small particles from the resp. tract, suspended in the air and can travel farther than droplets. (TB) e. Vector-borne: Insect or animal is an intermediate host 37. What is the major body part for transmitting infection?! HANDS a. That being said, HAND WASHING is one of the most important interventions anyone can do to prevent the spread of infection – remember this for the rest of your life.  38. What are nosocomial infections? Infections that occur in health care facilities Ex.) UTI from Foley 39. What are two main nosocomial infections that are extremely dangerous and often deadly? C. diff (Clostridium difficile) & MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) 40. Describe ways that a host can be resistant to infection? NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) 41. What is an interferon and why are they important?? Interferons are the bodies 2nd line of defense that help fight against viruses, they also protect uninfected cells against viruses. 42. What are factors that decrease host resistance? Age, pregnancy, malnutrition, chronic disease, severe physical/emotional distress. 43. What is the difference between virulence and pathogenicity? Pathogenicity is the capability of a microbe to cause disease & virulence is the degree of pathogenicity. Virulence is based on invasive qualities, toxic qualities, adherence & ability to avoid host defenses (how bad is it?) 44. Describe each stage of the chain of infection & how to break it at each stage if applicable (Figure 6-12): a. Reservoir: Source of infection. Environmental source such as contaminated soil. Infected person or animals b. Portal of exit: mouth, skin, intestine (minimize coughing & sneezing, disposal of contaminated items) c. Transmission: i. Direct: saliva, blood, feces, semen, exudates from skin (gloves, glasses, gowns, safe waste disposal) ii. Indirect: resp. droplet on hands, surfaces, insect bites (vectors), contaminated food or water (hand-washing, disinfect, sterilize, food handling & cooking, water treatment) d. Entry: mouth, nose, vagina (covering nose & mouth w/ mask, NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) symptoms, may persist over long periods of time 48. Describe local and systemic signs of infection: a. Local: inflammation: pain or tenderness, swelling, redness, and warmth. If the infection is caused by bacteria, a purulent exudate, or pus, is usually present, whereas a viral infection results in serous, clear exudates. b. Systemic: Signs & Symptoms common to significant infections in any area of the body. Fever, fatigue, weakness, headache, nausea. Chapter 7: Immunity 49. Describe the function of the following terms: a. Antigens: Foreign substances or human cell surface antigens that are unique. Composed of proteins or polysaccharides. Antigens activate the Immune system to produce specific antibodies. b. Macrophages: Developed from monocytes, initiate the immune response. Engulf foreign material, secrete chemicals such as monokines and interleukins these are chemical mediators for inflammation. c. Lymphocyte: i. T lymphocytes (T cells): White blood cells 1. Where are they produced? From bone marrow stem cells 2. Where do they mature? Thymus 3. What immunity are they responsible for? Cell- mediated immunity: lymphocytes are programmed to attack non-self cells to protect the body NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) ii. CD4+ T cell: 1. What disease destroys these cells which caused dangerous immunosuppression? HIV/AIDS iii. B lymphocytes (b cells): Become an antibody-producing plasma cell or a B memory cell 1. Where are they produced? Bone marrow 2. Where do they mature? spleen 3. What immunity are they responsible for? Humoral immunity-activated: antibodies are produced to protect the body iv. Natural killer cells: lymphocytes from T & B lymphocytes. Destroy w/out prior exposure. d. Antibodies: Specific protein produced in humoral response to bind with antigen 50. Describe the following types of immunity, their mechanism, and list examples: (Table 7-3) a. Natural active: Pathogen enter body & cause illness, active antibodies form in host. Have memory cell. Ex.) chicken pox b. Artificial active: Vaccine is injected into person. No illness results, antibodies form. Ex.) measles vaccine person gains immunity. Have memory cells NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) c. Natural passive: Antibodies passed directly from mother to child to provide temporary protection. Don’t have memory cells. Ex.) Placenta passage during pregnancy/ingestion of breast milk d. Artificial passive: Antibodies injected into person to provide temporary protection or minimize severity of infection. Don’t have memory cells Ex.) Anti-venom 51. Describe the different types of tissue or organ transplants: a. Allograft (homograft): from human to human (of the same species) b. Isograft: Tissue transferred between two genetically identical bodies (Twins) c. Autograft: Tissue transferred from one part of the body to another part on the same individual skin or bone d. Xenograft: Tissue transferred from a member of one species to different species. Pig to human 52. What type of hypersensitivity reaction is organ/tissue rejection? 53. Describe the following rejections: a. Hyperacute: wrong tissue type & wrong blood type. Immediate after transplant b. Acute: Develops after several weeks c. Chronic or late: Occurs months or even years. Haven taken immunosuppressant meds. 54. How do we try to prevent rejection? What type of drugs? Immunosuppression drugs used to reduce the immune response to prevent rejection. Ex.) cyclosporine, azathioprine, prednisone. Individuals NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) immune response CD4 lymphocytes: role in humoral & cell- mediated immunity 60. When do symptoms of HIV usually develop? Late is the disease process b/c of latent asymptomatic period 61. How is HIV transmitted? Sexual activity. Contact with semen or blood of infected individual 62. How is HIV not transmitted? Protected sex, not sharing needles, proper gloving when coming in contact with bodily secretions (blood or semen) 63. When is AIDS diagnosed? 2 ways (Answered for you already) a. Major decrease in CD4+ T cells b. Presence of an opportunistic infection or unusual cancer i. Candida infection in the lungs, blood, or tissues: Herpes complex ii. Pneumocystis carinii: common in HIV/AID patients. Pneumonia or cancer iii. Kaposi’s sarcoma: Termed AIDS indicator disease. Affects skin, mucous membranes & internal organs iv. Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma v. Tuberculosis 64. When are antiretroviral therapies indicated? a. Severe symptoms b. CD4 count over 500 c. Pregnancy NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) d. HIV-related kidney disease e. When treated for hepatitis B 65. For antiretroviral therapies to be effective, they MUST be taken at the same time every day, those who cannot adhere to this generally are not given antiretroviral medications due to the virus becoming resistant to the medications. Chapter 20: Neoplasms and Cancer 66. What does oncology refer to? The study of malignant tumors 67. What are the warning signs of cancer? -Unusual bleeding or discharge anywhere in the body -Change in bowel or bladder habits (prolonged diarrhea/discomfort) -Change in wart or mole -Sore that does not heal -Unexplained weight loss -Anemia/ low hemoglobin & persistent fatigue -Persistent cough or hoarseness w/out reason -Solid lump, often painless, in breast or testes or anywhere on the body 68. Describe local effects of tumors: -Pain: press on nerves, occurs when tumor is well advanced -Obstruction: When tumor compresses a duct or passageway, blood supply or lymphatic flow may be restricted -Tissue necrosis & ulceration: may lead to bleeding or infection around the tumor NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21) 69. Describe systemic effects of malignant tumors: -Weight loss & cachexia (severely emaciated), anorexia, fatigue, pain, stress -Anemia: caused by blood loss at tumor site, nutritional deficits -Severe fatigue: inflammatory changes -Effusions: Inflammation causes fluid buildup in body cavities -Infections: occur frequently as resistance declines -Bleeding: Tumor cells may erode the blood vessels -Paraneoplastic syndrome: Assoc. with certain tumor types, release substances that affect neurological function may have hormonal effects 70. What are tumor markers? Substances, enzymes, antigens or hormones produced by some neoplastic cells. a. How are they useful? They can be used to screen high-risk people to confirm diagnosis, or monitor malignant tumor. 71. Explain the difference between primary and secondary tumors: Secondary tumors are additional sites that the primary tumor has spread to. Secondary tumors are known as metastases. 72. Describe the three basic mechanisms for the spread of cancer: a. Invasion: Local spread, tumor cells grow to adjacent tissues b. Metastasis: Spread to distant sites via blood, lymph or other body fluids i. What nodes of the body are involved in metastasis? Lymph ii. How do we prevent micrometastases? Removing the lymph NR283 Exam 1 Study Guide(Chapters 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 20, & 21)