Ocean320 Final Exam Questions with Answers, Exams of Environmental Science

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Ocean320 Final Exam Questions with

Answers

Depth of the California

Current? 1600 ft.

Unfortunately PCBs have yet to be banned in the U.S.?

False

One safeguard against undetected in an area of study is to have many different

investigators or groups of investigators working in it.

Bias

In relation to Mass-Die Offs of Cetaceans, one scientific theory in our readings explains

the stranding and die-off of whole pods of whale and dolphins as a dementia like

problem resulting from PCBs affecting the brain

False

Petrochemicals make it into the ocean environment in many ways. Industrial applications

throughout the late 20th Century had a big impact. Cetaceans have been impacted for many

reasons. Which of the following is NOT one of the Cetaceans physiological problems.

accumulation of PCB in the brain

When was DDT banned for use in the United

States? 70's

Because of the social nature of science, the of scientific information is crucial

to its progress.

dissemination

Select all of the following that are significant land-based sources of chemical ocean

pollution? industrial operations

coal power plant emissions and airborne

mercury urban run-off

mining activities

pesticides used in agriculture

The Kermadec Trench would be one of the deepest places in the ocean also called the

zone? Hadal

What type of creature did scientists capture in the deep ocean trench to find that it had

absorbed relatively high levels of POP chemicals?

Amphipod

Which of the following would be considered an inference?

a map of the subsurface features of the Earth based on remote sensing tools

IN the image below of ocean salinities, which of the possible geographic locations would

have water with HIGH salinity because the processes of evaporation are more influential

than precipitation?

the eastern mediterranean sea

An active-satellite, one that sends out electromagnetic waves, can beam the energy down

toward the ocean surface and determine how large the waves on the ocean are. How much

energy comes back to the satellite and how fast it returns gives information. What is that?

a lot of backscatter means big waves as they reflect the microwave energy

In this contour Image of ocean temperatures, what is the temperature in degrees C of the

bright yellow spot in the lower right portion?

Remember to read all the lines, take your time.

17 degrees

What characterizes a satellite visualization of an El

Nino? warmer water (red) accumulates in the eastern

Pacific Ocean

What two bands of the electromagnetic spectrum are closest to the visual band? (Select

two) Ultraviolet rays

Infrared rays

An ocean gyre could be explained as a....

a very large circular flow of surface ocean water

When referring to a water molecule, what does

"polarity" mean? A water molecule has opposite charges

on either side

Which of the following locations has a lower degree of primary productivity?

Ocean halfway between California and Hawaii

Ocean satellite science really began with the TOPEX/Poseidon program which had remarkable

success. The satellite, and facilitating scientists, discovered much more than they anticipated

including......................................................................................................................................................(select all

of

the TOPEX/Poseidon accomplishments)

mapping the global tides

measuring the temperature variations across the ocean

mapping of the sea floor

helping track and forecast El Ninos

understanding global sea level variations

detailing seasonal changes in ocean

currents

Select the three plastic types that are considered dangerous to the marine environment?

plastic fiber products like those used in fishing nets and lines

single use plastic, including packaging (photo-degradable wraps and bags) and other products

meant to be thrown away like plastic straws

microplastics, including micro-beads and plastic compounds used in dozens of things like

toothpaste and facial scrub

DNA evidence that supports a coastal migration into the Americas comes from which

sources? (select as many as apply)

animal fossils

human fossils

plant and pollen fossils

Considering the "Four-trophic level" model, if zooplankton die off, what other trophic level(s)

should see a decline as well? (select all that apply)

top predators

feeder fish

Based on a report by scientists at Scripps who studied marine fossil assemblages in layers

deposited over the last 85 million years, Peak abundance of fish species occurred in

the.....

Paleogene

An ocean baseline would be the same as....

a reference point

The C. Megalodon Shark went extinct.......

in the modern ocean

This term divides up the marine biomass based on the different species' positions in the food

chain and it also describes a flow of energy through the ecosystem?

Trophic Levels

Based on a report by scientists at Scripps who studied marine fossil assemblages in layers

deposited over the last 85 million years, Geologically, the modern ocean ecosystem is distinct

from the....

Paleogene

What invention is regarded as the driver of modern industrialized

fishing? The refrigerator

Why do ecosystem baselines regressively shift?

humans don't notice

Fishing down the food web means.....

fishermen catch higher trophic levels first

A majority of people part of Pew Research Center poll (2014) were in favor of offshore oil drilling?

True

The first Paleozoic reefs were constructed of Schleractinian corals?

False

Productivity in the southern ocean is great when the sun is out, but what else makes these

waters flourish? deep water mixes vigorously to the surface

What is a biological pump, when referencing the

carbon cycle? a process that stores carbon

Where would you go scuba diving to see the highest coral and fish

diversity? central Indo-Pacific

Growing coral faster that nature has been accomplished by....

cutting the corals into smaller pieces stimulates growth

Which of these is the modern type of coral? The other two went extinct in the

Paleozoic Scleractinia

When talking about acidification, pH level is the same as.....

hydrogen ion concentration

Choose from the following all the things necessary to create a petro-fuel

reserve. you need a sedimentary basin

you need a way to trap the

fluids you need primary

productivity

Choose all the following that are potential stresses which could cause coral

bleaching? warming waters

Pollution

changing ocean chemistry

A change from a La Nina current to an El Nino current would (select all that apply)

decrease the chances of upwelling within the California

current decrease the chances for a dry California winter

What is true about ecosystem changes off Southern California during an El Nino? (select all

that apply) the California Current has less of an influence

bottom-up trophic cascade can partially occur

The sinking of cold salty water makes the deep oceans circulate, where would deep ocean water

NOT form? (select two places)

Indian

Ocean

North

Pacific

Typhoon Intensity in the western Pacific near Asia appears to be increasing, What is the main

reason? atmospheric water vapor increases

A change in the geography of the planet that occurred about 3.7 million years ago which likely

altered climate was related to.....

the formation of a land bridge between North and South America

What is true about the rate of carbon dioxide build up in the atmosphere during initiation

of the PETM (Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum) climate excursion?

It was slower than the rate of our current anthropogenic carbon emissions

IN "A World With No Ice" authors compare past times on Earth to a potential future state of

Earth. IF we were to travel back in time when was the most recent warm time in which there

were no ice ages?

Pliocene

Which of the following is NOT one of the noted changes to the California Current System that

occurs due to warm El Nino currents?

decreased ocean stratification

Over the past 65 million years, which geologic epoch was the

coldest? Pleistocene

What was a major legislative change that occurred a year after the 1969 Santa

Barbara oil spill? the federal environmental protection agency was formed

What is true about giant clams found in Palau and throughout

oceania? they live in a symbiotic relationship

they are filter feeders

they can grow 5 inches a

year they can weigh 500

pounds

Choose all the TRUE statements about mangrove forests?

mangrove forests are a nursery ground for many ocean species

mangrove forests act as a buffer between humans and the ocean and clean up

dirty water half of all mangrove forests have disappeared as a result of

development

mangrove forests are a source of ocean nutrients

a majority of tropical fish depend on mangroves for

survival mangrove forests are rich and biologically diverse

ecosystem mangrove forests trap carbon and create oxygen

just like other forests

mangrove forests protect coastlines from the destructive power of hurricanes

The best methods for successful and sustainable aquaculture or mariculture are those that grow

one type of species and artificially create environments that benefit that species? T/F

False

How much carbon can a mangrove forest

absorb? about 5 times more carbon than a

tropical rainforest

What is NOT true about humans and the consumption of giant

clams? humans have stopped eating giant clam meat all

together

When Palau became an independent nation in 1994, its founders wrote in the constitution about the

need for “conservation of a beautiful, healthful, and resourceful natural environment.” What is NOT

true about Palau's achievements since then?

they have established commercial fisheries in their boundary waters and manage them with a

modern fleet of enforcement patrols.

What is the key evolutionary advantage of iridocytes within clam tissue?

they maximize photosynthesis through the clam tissue not just on its outer surface layer

What is NOT true about the farming of giant clam meat?

giant clam meat can only be consumed by people with a special gene for digesting it

A type of sugar (carbohydrate) that is produced by symbiotic algae within the mantle of a

giant clam is called....

Glycerol

Which of the following is true?

aquaculture is essential to the global food supply

One longer lasting impact that relates to what we have learned earlier, that the Gulf of Mexico is a Blue Fin Tuna breeding area. Since mid and lower tropic levels were severally impacted by the oil spill and still remain stressed, a cascade of effects have impacted the feeding habits of these predatory species. Blue Fin Tuna, (a trans-Atlantic species) obviously did not need that extra stress at a critical time when their numbers and sizes are dwindling. wikipediia reference..... "In 2013 it was reported that dolphins and other marine life continued to die in record numbers with infant dolphins dying at six times the normal rate. One study released in 2014 reported that tuna and amberjack that were exposed to oil from the spill developed deformities of the heart and other organs that would be expected to be fatal or at least life-shortening and another study found that cardiotoxicity might have been widespread in animal life exposed to the spill". The energy that you see blowing out of the ground is highly pressurized gas. Gas and oil can often come out of the ground together. The potential for gas pressure was known. Actions during completion of British Pertoleum's 18,000 foot well led a subcontractor to say that B.P.'s use of cement to seal the last casing "was against our best practices." The contractor recommended redundant casing seals. B.P. went forward with the cheapest option. The seal would fail. A methane gas bubble formed deep underground in the lower well casing and as it broke through seals it rapidly expanded and the pressure increased as it rose higher (shallower) in the well pipe. The well head was designed for a maximum pressure of 15,000 psi. The resulting explosion, killed 11, the fire was put out when the rig sank a day later. Over the next 87 days, 210,000,000 gallons of crude oil would spray from the well, Drifting with currents it would cover 800,000 square miles. So here is another way to think about images of the flaming 4 billion dollar "Deepwater Horizon" rig which literally was testing the limits of engineering technology and science. Because it is symbolic of the time in which we live. It was only accomplished because there was a need and a profit to be made. We have gotten really good at this. We (by "we" I mean companies and our society) have been able to accomplish incredible engineering feats in pursuit of the underground "black gold". In some ways the deep water drilling technology of today is light years beyond the technology that sent humans to the moon. We are expert at extracting long-stored hydrocarbons as fast and efficiently as we can. We can drill multiple holes from one rig We can direct each of those wells to different sources. This is called directional drilling. Some atoms extracted from reserves in deep sedimentary layers in the Gulf of Mexico have not seen the sunlight in nearly 200 million years. The only way that they survived to be extracted as a fuel is the fact they they were geologically "trapped" long after burial and even longer after the kerogen proteins of the plankton and other organics had broken down into oil and natural gas. Somehow these naturally processed "fuels" had been "trapped" in the ground by geologic structures and sedimentary layers. Most of the time this low-density oil or gas forming underground leaks upward and seeps out of cracks in to the ocean. In fact nearly half of all petroleum molecules that enter the ocean do so by these natural seeps. In small quantities and rates of input these molecules are harmless and they are consumed by bacterial decomposition. These hydrocarbons started out as plankton carcases, and other organic remains, raining to the bottom of the sea a hundred plus million years ago. The formation of these precursors to petroleum is an everyday occurrence. Hydro-Carbons form all the time when water and carbon dioxide combine during photosynthesis. IF the organic molecules form at high rates there can be an excess accumulating on the ocean floor. These organic molecules are often consumed by decomposition on the ocean floor. If they form in vast amounts or are rapidly buried they can survive to become oil. During the early rifting of Pangea, the Gulf of Mexico began it long life as a depositional basin. Heavy and constant sedimentation helped to bury organic molecules before they had a chance to decompose. Sedimentation has not ceased in that area for nearly 200 million years. The Gulf basin obviously had high rates of productivity at certain times in the past. If the proteins that fall to the ocean floor, are buried fast enough and NOT exposed to the elements of decomposition, which breaks the more complex carbohydrates into ionic and molecular nutrients, or unless they are consumed and recycled by the

food chain, they will be

incorporated into the sedimentary layers. AS they are buried deeper and deeper by the sand and mud they are heated up a little and naturally refined into petroleum and natural gas. The ocean circulation, or lack thereof, along the ocean floor can play a big role in carbon preservation. IF there is inadequate circulation in the deepest parts of a sedimentary basin, the decomposers, which respire oxygen, won't be present and carbon rich source rocks can accumulate. SO it is likely a result of all four of these variables: 1) High productivity in the Gulf of Mexico Waters, 2) Rapid sedimentation, 3) Reduced (or lack of) oxygen on the ocean floor, 4) Geological structures (salt domes and faults) or sedimentary layers (shale) to trap the oil (preserve it). IT is actually quite a marvel to achieve what humans have. With extreme efficiency we can extract this deep oil and gas. Nowdays using the technique of directional drilling with multiple wells originating from a single platform. The rub is that the faster we extract it, the faster we burn it, the faster carbon rises in both the atmosphere and oceans. These higher rates of change exert extra stress on the system as a whole and on individual species as they try to adapt. We also must adapt because sooner or later no matter how fast we burn the fossil fuels it will run out or become increasingly harder to come by. At current rates of consumption, coal could last a 1000 years, maybe more. Natural gas might get us through a couple hundred. Most petroleum will be pumped out by the end of the 21st century given current consumption and knowledge of global reserves. Another major source of carbon energy and higher carbon emissions is coal, which is a quasi-marine deposit, forming by the burial of vast vegetation in swamps. We need to slow down the trend, but it keeps increasing!(Gigatons, = 2,000,000,000,000 pounds) ● The average human exhales 2.3 pounds of CO2 per day, a full grown tree absorbs about 1 pound CO2 per week. ● The average car produces 20 pounds of carbon dioxide per gallon (~1lb CO2 per mile) ● The average car (driven 12,000 miles) adds about 6 tons (12000 lbs) per year ● The average American is responsible for producing 20 tons/yr (40,000 lbs) ● It would take 8 acres of forest to absorb the carbon from one American (20 tons) ● America has 2 acres of forest for every person ● The average Human (non-American) adds 4 tons/yr (that absorbed by 1.6 acres of forest) ● Human CO2 emissions are over 30 Gt per year. (1 Gt of carbon = 3.6 Gt of CO Understand basic coral biology and their important symbiotic relationship with single celled, primitive plant cells called zooxanthella. What does decrease in the calcification rate mean? ● What is a calcifer? ● How does decreasing calcification rate relate to pH? ● As pH decreases bicarbonate ion concentration? ● As pH decreases hydrogen ion concentration? ● Where in the ocean is the extra carbon dioxide located mostly? ● When did the significant rise in atmospheric and marine carbon dioxide begin? ● What ocean organisms are most effected by acidification based on our current knowledge? ● What is Aragonite? How does lowering the saturation level effect most calcifers? ● Why does acidification present a difficult challenge for stoney corals? ● What photosynthetic benthic life form might benefit from extra CO2? ● What type of phytoplankton would be least impacted by acidification? EXAMPLES OF SUSTAINABLE AQUA- and MARI-CULTURE Aquaculture occurs in various environments some of which are close to, and thus have an impact on the marine system. An aquaculture pond is generally found above sea level. Mariculture can be used to refer to marine farming in nearshore, offshore and estuarine environments. Many still call all these methods aquaculture. An example of

mariculture would be oyster-farming which has occurred for many decades and has been shown to be sustainable, provide a food source, enhance a degraded environment, and store carbon as the oysters form carbonate shells. Polyculture is a term that refers to the cultivation of more than one species in symbiotic ways. Aquasilviculture involves farming that is compatible or complimentary with mangrove forest preservation and is considered a form of resource management with a goal of sustainability and ecosystem preservation. What to know in general: ● IF you have to catch "wild" fish to feed the farm fish, it is NOT sustainable. ● IF you farm non-native species they can escape to harm local ecosystems. ● IF farm fish develop pathogenic problems they can be spread to native ecosystems ● IF you give fish antibiotics and they accumulate in the environment a multitude of unknown effects could occur. ● IF fish farms build up concentrated waste it can disrupt the local system. ● Infrastructure invariably needs to be minimized Aqua culture should be developed in concert (symbiotically) with local environments to achieve sustainability IF the goal is sustainability (and it needs to be), we need to culture "with" the environment to sustain (save) and improve (rehab) degraded and overworked coastal waters. IN some cases ecosystems are ruined by the farming operations. IN some other instances, as we will examine, ecosystems are being improved, or not unduly harmed. Obviously some locations are more sensitive than others. There are many examples that not only provide a food source for humans, they help to rehabilitate or save coastal habitats (from other development) and suck up carbon in the process. Aquasilviculture is s method of farming that helps to preserve (or not destroy) essential mangrove forest systems in the process of raising seafood. There is no question that a large part of our global food supply increasingly consists of farm-raised fish. WE actually raise more in farms now than we catch in the wild. SUSTAINABLE MARICULTURE, RESTORATION, AND MARINE PROTECTION IN THE REPUBLIC OF PALAU. The Republic of Palau (Belau) is a nation of Islands (~340) in the western Pacific Ocean, part of the Caroline Islands. Its land area is 180 mi2, which is about the size of Scottsdale Arizona. Farmore important is Palau’s economic exclusion zone (EEZ) that has been designated a shark sanctuary since

2009. Since 2016, an area of about 193,000 mi2, bigger than California, has been protected. Palau has two patrol boats to protect this vast area that is under constant threat from foreign vessels. Invaders of this rich and productive area include the Philippines, Indonesia, Japan, China, Taiwan, and Papau New Guinea. There are more than 1,300 species of fish and 700 species of coral around Palau’s hundreds of tiny islands. Palau National Marine Sanctuary Building Palau’s future and honoring its past Caring for the environment has long been an important part of Palau’s culture. For centuries, traditional leaders on these Pacific Ocean islands have worked to protect local waters through enactment of a “bul”—a moratorium on catching key species or fishing on certain reefs to protect habitats that are critical to the community’s food security When Palau became an independent nation in 1994, its founders wrote in the constitution about the need for “conservation of a beautiful, healthful, and resourceful natural environment.” Palau’s waters are worth protecting. Commonly referred to as one of the seven underwater wonders of the world, they boast ecosystems of remarkable biodiversity, which include:

● More than 1,300 species of fish. ● More than 400 species of hard coral and 300 species of soft coral. ● Seven of the world’s nine types of giant clam. ● Lakes that are home to nonstinging jellyfish. ● The most plant and animal species in Micronesia. Palau is again taking a leading role by moving to create a modern-day bul that puts the marine environment first. On Oct. 28, 2015, after unanimous passage in the National Congress, President Tommy E. Remengesau Jr. signed into law the Palau National Marine Sanctuary Act, establishing one of the world’s largest protected areas of ocean. The sanctuary will fully protect about 80 percent of the nation’s maritime territory. Full protection means that no extractive activities, such as fishing or mining, can take place. The reserve covers 500,000 square kilometers (193,000 square miles)—an area bigger than the U.S. state of California Going even farther to protect coastal habitats and provide for sustainable environments, Palau has initiated several programs and partnerships. Dozens of species of native fish are being raised in nurseries and then reintroduced to the local waters to bolster declining populations. An important “natural” nursery for juvenile fishes are the local mangrove forests which are being protected and are being revitalized with critical stocks as well as the overharvested mangrove crabs, an important keystone species. The mangroves serve as home for the crabs and a temporary shelter (nursery ground) for local developing fish populations. Palau has a program to reintroduce giant clam species to the local waters emptied of them over the 20th century. They have an accelerated breeding program that grows many for return to the wild and also supply local family farmers with “seedlings” for sustainable commercial market in clam meat. GIANT CLAMS (Tridacna gigas) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_clam of Palau are famous. They have been called “man eaters”, for no reason other than their size. These filter feeders range throughout the south Pacific into the Indian Ocean. Throughout history they have been severely exploited. They have completely disappeared from many locales and are considered one of the most threatened clam species. There are several species of giant clams that grow very rapidly (12cm/yr ~5 inches) with the aid of symbiotic algae that live in their mantle tissue and provide much of the clams food. They must live in the sunlit photic zone above a depth of about 20 meters. During the day they open their mouth (shell) and extend their mantle so the algae get the sunlight they need for photosynthetic biomass, which is then added to the filter food of the clams diet. In the wild they can grow to 400 pounds and over a meter in size*. They can live for over one hundred years. *The largest known T. gigas specimen measured 137 centimeters (4 ft 6 in). It was discovered around 1817 on the northwestern coast of Sumatra. The weight of the two shells was 230 kilograms (510 lb). This suggests that the live weight of the animal would have been roughly 250 kilograms (550 lb). Today these shells are on display in a museum in Northern Ireland. Clever clams and algae show how best to harvest light Little and large they may be. But giant clams have evolved a unique trick for redirecting sunlight to their microscopic algal tenants. In many species of giant clam, photosynthetic algae live in the clam’s fleshy mantle, which is exposed to the sea and sunlight through the flaps of its shell (pictured). In exchange for their home, the algae secrete glycerol, which feeds the clam. The association is one of many in which animals work symbiotically with plants and algae to harvest the power of the sun. But giant clams have specialised cells called iridocytes that allow algae to grow in microscopic pillars, which go about 2 millimetres deep into the clam mantle. Alison Sweeney of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia and

her team have demonstrated that the iridocytes ensure that every last algal cell in the micro-pillar still gets its fill of sunlight, even though most of the 300 or so cells in each column have no direct access to the light. “What makes this system in the clam special is that the design can extract every last photon from sunlight,” says Sweeney. By shining halogen lamps on clams, Sweeney found that iridocytes redirect the path of sunlight so that it fans out into a cone about 15 degrees wide, bathing entire pillars of algae in mild, but optimal, intensities of light. Moreover, they transmit mainly red and blue light, the wavelengths that the algae photosynthesise most efficiently, and deflect much of the green and yellow wavelengths. “The amount and mix of light that gets through is just right for the algae,” says Sweeney. “And it fans out just enough to reach all the cells in the column.” Typically, clams that live in shallow coral reefs are exposed to levels of sunlight that are enough to kill the algae. Mimicking nature “While earlier work speculated on the role of these iridescent cells, this paper clearly shows how clams use iridocytes to control and redistribute the light that reaches their algal symbionts,” says Ryan Kerney of Gettysburg College in Pennsylvania. Kerney says that the research also solves the puzzle of why many clams are iridescent – it’s down to the green or yellow light that is reflected because it’s of no use to the algae. “Animals such as starlings or butterflies generally use iridescence for display or camouflage, but giant clams do neither, instead optimising the absorption of light to suit tiny stacks of algal cells.” Sweeney and her colleague, Shu Yang, have now begun a project to try to artificially mimic the function of the iridocytes, and to test ways of growing pillars of algae. It could drastically improve the efficiency with which algae can be farmed to produce biofuels , because it would allow the algae to be grown in layers hundreds of cells thick instead of as a single layer, or being constantly stirred to expose all cells to sunlight. “The clams have shown us how to grow algae very densely, without having to stir them, which wastes energy,” says Sweeney. ● In ancient times people were harvesting giant clams from waters of the Red Sea, so ○ How long have humans been utilizing them as a food source? ● What does polyculture with giant clams entail? ● How and why is clam farming sustainble? WATCH: Aquaculture in Palau: Sustainability Within Reach The small island nation of Palau is home to some of the most beautiful islands and coral reefs on the planet. In an effort to keep them pristine, the government is switching focus from commercial fishing to local aquaculture production. This is the first video in a series of videos on Aquaculture in Palau. ● Palau consist of 586 islands, of which 9 are inhabited; ● Land area: 415.58 sq. km; ● Made up of 5 geological island types: volcanic, high limestone, low limestone, atolls, and a combination of volcanics and limestones;

● Climate: tropical rainy climate; ● Temperature: mean is 82°F; ● Rainfall: 150 inches per year; ● Population: 21,000+ ● Main industry: adventure tourism ● GDP: 7,028. The role of Palau Community College Cooperative Research and Extension (PCC-CRE) An accessible public educational institution helping to meet the technical, academic, cultural, social and economic needs of students and the communities by promoting learning opportunities and developing personal excellence. Mission of CRE To collaborate with partners and clients to generate, develop and disseminate practical, relevant and sustainable technologies and knowledge in agriculture, environment, food and human sciences to benefit the people of Palau. Major Species of Commercial Interest Rabbitfish (Siganus fuscescens Siganus lineatus) Mangrove Crab (Scylla serrata) Milkfish (Chanos chanos) Grouper (Epinephelus sp , Plectropomus sp.) Tiger Shrimp (Penaeus monodon) Aquaculture Facilities in Palau Hatcheries: PCC Multi-species hatchery – Ngeremlengui State Biota Aquaculture – Airai State BMR (Palau National Hatchery) - Koror Grow-out Farms: Ngerdubech Aquaculture Corp - Milkfish, grouper, rabbitfish Nabeyama Aquaculture Farm – Milkfish, rabbitfish, mangrove crabs Ngatpang State Aquaculture Project - Milkfish, rabbitfish Milwert Tmetuchl Milkfish Farm in Airai – Milkfish, mangrove crab Carlos Wasisang Mangrove crab Farm

• Mangrove crabs Indigo Company – Rabbitfish , grouper Bailey Aberdong – mangrove crabs Research Projects Rabbitfish Broodstock Development and Seed production of Rabbitfish (Siganus fuscescens), COM (Hatch fund) - 2005 to 2011 Rabbitfish Seed Production of Lined-Rabbitfish (Siganus lineatusValenciennes, 1835) in Palau. – COM and CTSA 2012- 2014,

Milkfish Establishment of Milkfish Fry Production in Palau to Reduce Dependency on Imported Fry. - COM and CTSA 2014 to 2017 Coral Grouper Establishing Coral Grouper (Plectropomus leopardus) Production in Palau through the Application of Intensive Copepod Production Technology. – COM and CTSA 2014 to 2017 Mangrove Crab Seed Production and Development of Grow-out Systems for Mangrove crabs(Scylla serrata) – COM and CTSA 2012 to 2017 25 Days old Craets Extension Activities Technical assistance and support in the development of hatchery and farming techniques for rabbitfish, milkfish, mangrove crabs and grouper Upon request at the PCC-CRE office, the hatchery produced fries and fingerlings were distributed to various fish farm sites in Palau for grow-out trials. Transporting by boat Amos fishpond, Malakal Clam Farms in Airai Assisted on the establishment of crab banks and the release of crablets to enhance mangrove crab population Seed production of Tiger Shrimp (Penaeus monodon) Other Species of Interest Mangrove clam (Anodontia edentula) Sea cucumber ( Holothuria spp) Mullet (Mugil sp ) Oysters (Crassostrea sp.) Mangrove red Snapper (Lutjanus argentimaculatus) Spiny Lobster( Panulirus versicolor) AQUASILVICULTURE-The importance of Mangrove Preservation and Sustainability Silviculture is defined as: "the practice of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of forests to meet diverse needs and values". Mangroves are a biologically diverse and critically important Earth environment. ● they trap carbon and create oxygen just like other forests ● they are a nursery ground for many ocean species

● they are rich and biologically diverse ecosystem ● they are a source of ocean nutrients ● they act as a buffer between humans and the ocean and clean up dirty water ● they have disappeared due to development and environmental damage ● they can be fostered to be healthy and productive Mangroves are among the most biologically important ecosystems on the planet, and a common feature of tropical and sub-tropical coastlines. But ground-based evidence suggests these vital coastal forests have been strained in many regions because of harvesting for food, fuel, and medicine. Now, scientists have used satellite images to compile the most comprehensive map of mangroves worldwide, which should help in future efforts in monitoring and conservation. Mangrove forests are typically made up of trees, shrubs, and palms that have adapted to the harsh conditions of high salinity, warm air and water temperatures, extreme tides, muddy, sediment-laden waters, and oxygen-depleted soils. They are fertile nurseries for many marine species, and also serve as a first line of defense against hurricanes and tsunamis by dissipating wave and wind energy. These maps show the location and relative density of mangroves, which cover roughly 137, square kilometers (53,190 square miles) of Earth’s surface. The forests can be found in 118 different countries and territories, though nearly 75 percent of their area occurs in just 15 countries. They are most often found straddling the equator between 25º North and South latitude. About 42 percent of the world’s mangroves are found in Asia, with 21 percent in Africa, 15 percent in North and Central America, 12 percent in Australia and the islands of Oceania, and 11 percent in South America. The effort to create the maps was led by Chandra Giri of the U.S. Geological Survey and published recently in the journal Global Ecology and Biogeography. Using digital image classification techniques, the research team compiled and analyzed more than 1,000 scenes from the Landsat series of satellites. Giri and colleagues found 12.3 percent less area covered by mangroves than previously estimated by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. The current extent of mangroves is probably half of what once existed. Only 6.9 percent of mangrove forests are protected by law. Indonesia (center of the lower map) includes as many as 17,000 islands and nearly a quarter of the world's mangroves. Yet those forests have been cut in half in the past three decades, shrinking from 4.2 million hectares in 1982 to 2 million in 2000. Of the remaining forests, nearly 70 percent are "in critical condition and seriously damaged," reported Fadel Muhammad, Indonesia's minister of fisheries and marine affairs. Nearly a fifth of the coast of Australia (the north coast is shown above) is surrounded by mangrove- lined coast. Australia has the third largest area of mangroves in the world after Indonesia and Brazil, and approximately 6.4% of the world’s total mangrove area. One of the World’s Most Important Ecosystems From combating climate change to protecting fisheries and coastlines around the world, mangroves are one of the world’s most vital and interconnected environments – their impact reaching far beyond where the land meets the sea. "The Roots of the Sea"

Although once thought of as useless wastelands, careful study and research has revealed that mangroves are among the most important ecosystems on this planet. Valued for anchoring coastal ecosystems as well as providing economic and ecosystem services to humans, mangrove forests are true treasures. The complexities of these systems are enormous, and there is still much to learn. Mangrove forests are highly interconnected within the ecosystem itself, but they also make up a transitional zone between land and ocean, connecting and supporting both. It is no surprise that mangroves are called “roots of the sea.” Mangroves do more proportionally than any other forest to sequester carbon – up to 5x more per hectare than tropical rainforests. This makes mangrove forests – and their restoration – one of the planet’s best and most important defenses against climate change. ABSTRACT: Declining fish catch, conversion of mangroves into fish ponds and overexploitation of coastal resources were rampant among the coastal areas of Philippines. Hence, the national government initiated the implementation of Philippine National Aquasilviculture Program aimed to achieve food security, promote sustainable development of fisheries resources, and reduce poverty incidence among fisherfolk and other disadvantaged groups. To this, the Mindanao State University at Naawan served as the academic partner of the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Region 10 in implementing three major projects namely, mangrove plantation, aquasilviculture and king crab hatchery in the community. Several people’s organizations in Misamis Oriental, Misamis Occidental and Lanao del Norte served as the project beneficiaries and implementors, particularly on mangrove plantation and aquasilviculture projects. After a year of mangrove planting, 621,852 living propagules survived (48.47%) from 1,282,770 propagules planted. In terms of aquasilviculture project, bangus cultured had a harvest of 3,513 from 4,500 juveniles reared, while only 50 individuals matured crabs were harvested out of 8,700 crablets raised simultaneously with the bangus in the same aquasilviculture pens. Hatchery of king crab attained ~1% zoeas that turned to megalopa stage. Only few reached to crablet stage due to severe cannibalism and microbial contamination. Major challenges of the project included the lack of support from local governments, internal issues of the organizations and natural disturbances like storm occurrences. All issues and concerns were brought to the partners people’s organizations and Regional Steering Committee for further deliberations and appropriate actions should similar projects be undertaken in the future. Mangroves are woody plants that inhabit the upper intertidal zones of saltwater areas, primarily in tropical and subtropical coastal regions around the world. The term “mangrove” describes both the ecosystem and the plants that have developed specialized adaptations to live in a coastal environment. They are valuable sources of forest products (e.g. Firewood, timber, medicinal and others) and aquatic resources which are beneficial to local economies in approximately 123 countries/territories and Dieta, 2015; Kathiresan, 2012; Carter et al., 2015; Friess, 2016). Mangrove forests are commonly viewed as biodiversity-rich ecosystems on earth and provide a variety of niches to organisms at various trophic levels, where these organisms are dependent for survival (Maiti and Chowdhury, 2013; Hendy et al., 2014). They also protect the inland communities living near the forest from damage caused by coastal erosion and storms. However, due to increased anthropogenic pressures, primarily from unregulated human interventions such as timber cutting, aquaculture and coastal development, mangrove forests are declining worldwide. As such, much research has been carried out on mangroves in the last 50 years. In fact, in 2010, there were more than 8,000 publications on mangrove indexed by the Web of Science (Polidoro et al., 2010; Van Loon et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2014; Andradi-Brown et al., 2013; Motamedi et al., 2014). The goods and services provided by these ecosystems are so important for our needs and survival, yet the widespread decline would bring drastic consequences. (Mukherjee et al., 2014). One of the crucial issues in coastal development, based on the use of natural resources, is on how to integrate economic development, while mitigating negative impacts and problems in the future leading to natural resources conservation and environmental sustainability (Malik et al., 2015). Globally, mangroves are disappearing at an alarming rate of 1 to 2% per year, faster than the adjacent coral reefs or tropical rainforests (Chen et al., 2009;

DasGupta and Shaw, 2013; Nwosu and Holzlçhner, 2016). In the Philippines, 76.6% of the mangrove areas were lost in less than a century with an estimated national deforestation rate of 4,432 ha/ year between 1951 and 1988. The deforestation rates in the mangroves are four times greater than those in terrestrial tropical rainforests (Flores et al., 2015; Blanco et al., 2012). The lost mangrove may eventually lead to reduced coastal water quality and biodiversity, and altered nursery and habitat for fish, mollusks and crustaceans. This, in turn, affects the adjacent coastal habitats which will remove a major resource for human communities that rely on mangroves for numerous products and services (Sahu et al., 2015). To address such problems, increased mangrove plantation and rehabilitation programs have been implemented. Mangrove reforestation and management are being promoted enthusiastically by governments, non-governmental organizations, and aid agencies throughout South and Southeast Asia, and increasingly in Africa, the Caribbean, and Latin America (Walters, 2004). In the Philippines, there are more than 44,000 hectares of mangroves planted during the past few decades (Samson and Rollon, 2008). One third of the world’s major fisheries had already collapsed by 2003 and many continue to decline. These worldwide declines of ocean fisheries stocks has provided a way for a rapid growth in aquaculture. The fish produced from farming activities currently accounts for over one quarter of all fish directly consumed by humans. Aquaculture has grown three times faster than agriculture, at an amazing rate of 8.3% per year since 1970 and provided 48.4% of the world’s seafood consumed in

2009. In 2012-2014, the Philippines fish catch ratio increased regardless of the super typhoons and other natural calamities that hit the country. In Asian countries, one-half of the animal protein intake comes from fish, specifically, in the Philippines, they had an estimated average of 43% of their animal protein diet derived from fish (Naylor et al., 2000; Cagauan, 2007; Diana et al., 2013; Mukherjee et al., 2014; Anticamara and Go, 2016). Other organisms good for farming is mud crab, and it is widely practiced in many Southeast Asian countries and Australia, that in turn, has resulted in higher prices in the local and international markets (Santhanakumar et al., 2010). In addressing the issues and concerns of depleting coastal resources in the Philippines, the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) initiated the implementation of the Philippine National Aquasilviculture Program (PNAP). This program aims to achieve food security, promote sustainable development of fisheries resources, and reduce poverty incidence among fisherfolk and other disadvantaged groups (Dieta and Dieta, 2015; Masagca, 2016). Aquasilviculture is an environment-friendly enhanced fisheries production in the wild with aquatic organisms cultured within a mangrove area without cutting down a single tree (Enate et al., 2013). As such, the Philippine National Aquasilviculture Program (PNAP) is established and implemented by the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Region 10 in partnership with the Extension Division of the Mindanao State University (MSU) at Naawan. PNAP is a community-based project that provides assistance to the duly registered and accredited people’s organizations in the provinces of Misamis Oriental, Misamis Occidental and Lanao del Norte (Fig. 1). Three major project components are implemented such as mangrove plantation, aquasilviculture of bangus and king crab, and king crab hatchery. These project components are implemented to enhance and restore the disturbed coastal habitats, to protect the residents from natural calamities like storm surges, to improve natural stocks of fisheries and to help and improve the livelihood of the people living near and within the coastal zones. MATERIALS AND METHODS Mangrove plantation

Entry protocol was done in the identified areas of mangrove plantation. Proper coordination was done with the Local Government Unit (LGU), Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Department of Agriculture, Barangay and People’s Organizations (POs). Meetings were conducted for orientation and levelling-off of the project objectives. PO beneficiaries must be duly recognized by the LGU, and once agreed, a Memorandum of Agreement was initiated. A payment was made for every mangrove propagule planted, that is, Philippine Peso (PhP) 6.00 all in all after a year of planting. Validation and monitoring were conducted to ensure a higher percentage of mangrove survival after a year of planting. Standard planting schemes were followed based on the guidelines provided by the National Steering Committee of PNAP. Aquasilviculture project In aquasilviculture project, simultaneous rearing of bangus (Chanos chanos( and king crab )Scylla serrate( was done in one aquasilviculture pen inside a mangrove area. The construction materials such as bamboo poles and net enclosures for aquasilviculture pen measuring 10x10 square meter were given to the PO beneficiaries, as well as the cultured species and feeds. After one culture period, the established aquasilviculture pens were turned-over to the PO beneficiaries for future uses and management. Community-Based Multi-Species Hatchery Community-based multi-species hatchery was implemented by MSU Naawan in its wet laboratory. King crab (Scylla serrata) was reared; where gravid female stocks were obtained from the province of Surigao del Sur. Separate tanks for the brood stock were used, while the newly- hatched eggs were transferred to larval rearing tanks (LRTs). Constant watering and feeding management were observed until crablets were produced. Standard protocol for king crab hatchery from Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC) was followed. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Mangrove plantation In PNAP 1 and 2 phases, there were 1,282,770 mangrove propagules planted with a survival rate of 48.47% equivalent to 621,852 survived after a year of planting in the three provinces of Misamis Oriental, Misamis Occidental and Lanao del Norte. In the province of Lanao del Norte, there were 333,200 propagules planted in 67 hectares benefiting a total of 532 PO member beneficiaries. To this, a total of 130,788 mangroves survived after one year with a survival percentage of 39.25%. Less than 50% survival rate was attributed to various human disturbances and occurrences of typhoons that deposited huge amounts of debris and sediments onto the planted mangrove propagules. The achieved survival rate was attained in response to constant reminders to PO beneficiaries that they must do their roles in protecting the mangroves planted. It was emphasized to them that mangroves will provide the needed economic and ecological benefits for the present and future generations. In Misamis Oriental, there were 920,428 propagules planted in 222.7 hectares and with the total of 510 PO member beneficiaries. It attained a survival percentage of 50.32% or 463,208 mangrove propagules survived after one year. Relatively similar anthropogenic disturbances (e.g. Gleaning and fishing and trampling of the propagules) and natural consequences were observed after spending a total amount of PhP 4,379,518.00. In Misamis Occidental, there were 29,142 propagules planted in 6 hectares (ha) with only one PO beneficiary. A total of 27,856 mangroves survived after one year or 95.58% survival rate after spending an amount of PhP 171,637.00 (Fig. 2). Aquasilviculture project

There were 8,700 crablets reared in 16-unit aquasilviculture pens, however, only 50 individuals were harvested in approximately 13.1 kg. This only accounted 0.57% success rate from crablets to marketable sizes of crabs. For bangus, the 4,500 fry reared had 3,513 matured marketable individuals harvested, hence a 78.06% success rate (Fig. 3). Bangus were harvested before typhoons occurred since many pens were destroyed, many crabs escaped from destroying pens resulting in little harvest. On completion of the project, the PO beneficiaries could assess their losses as well as gains with aquasilviculture and are ready to build on their acquired experiences to improve the process. Lost could be attributed to the amounts of money spent despite the efforts, time and technical supports given. There were 8,700 crablets reared, yet only 50 individuals were harvested in approximately 13. kg amounting to about PhP 3,930.00, that is, assuming of a PhP300 price per kg. For bangus, it yielded an approximate income of PhP 98, 820.00, assuming that it was sold at P120 per kg. Thus, the total approximate income from aquasilviculture was roughly around PhP 102, 750.00, yet still was a deficit of about PhP 937, 250.00 of a total project cost of PhP1.04 million. 206 Int. J. Hum. Capital Urban Manage., 2(3): 203-210, Summer 2017 Fig. 2: Total number of mangrove propagules planted and mangrove survival after a year of planting in three provinces of Misamis Oriental, Misamis Occidental and Lanao del Norte. Fig. 3: Total number of individuals of bangus and crabs harvested in the 16-unit aquasilviculture pens. Community-based multi-species hatchery For the first collection period of gravid female crabs, two hatching/stacking sessions were obtained amounting to 8.855 million (M) zoeas spawned. This ranged from 9 to 25 days of culture in larval rearing tanks (LRTs). Prior to rearing the zoeas, there were 100 zoeas per liter contained in an 8-ton capacity LRTs. Out of the 8.8M zoeas spawned, only three (3) crablets were produced. The second run of zoea production had a total of 11.8M. It comprised a range of 5 to12 days of culture with only four (4) crablets produced. Other female crabs spawned 3.7 and 4.1 million zoeas, respectively. However, only a few zoeas reached crablet stage. The relatively less production of crablets, even at their megalopa stage, was attributed to contaminated water source, relative lack of food organisms and extreme cannibalism. The major causes of high 207 Int. J. Hum. Capital Urban Manage., 2(3): 203-210, Summer 2017 S.A. Vedra et al. mortality rates observed were: the hatching of underdeveloped eggs, death of the zoeas upon spawning, limited supply of rotifers as a food source that resulted to extreme cannibalism, and contamination of the water source and culture tanks by a microbe known as zoothalium. If careful water management and adequate food organisms is ensured for the next batch of zoeas to be spawned, it is hoped to produce more crablets for future utilization. This study implied that crab hatchery was feasible for future hatchery and aquaculture purposes. CONCLUSION Three major project components of PNAP such as mangrove plantation, aquasilviculture of bangus and king crab, and king crab hatchery were implemented. More than 40% mangrove propagules that survived after a year of planting in the three provinces would mean that they might relatively address the objectives set for PNAP implementation, on enhancing and restoring the disturbed coastal habitats, protecting the residents from natural

calamities like storm surges, improving natural stocks of fisheries and help in improving the livelihood of the people living near and within the coastal zones. Relative to this, important lessons were learned prior to planting and rearing of mangroves in the three provinces such as replant lost/dead propagules, find other areas which are not prone to wave action, regular maintenance and monitoring of the planted area, more information dissemination, meetings and discussions with the PO member beneficiaries to enhance the project implemented. In aquasilviculture project, the PO beneficiaries did not earn money yet it created important lessons for future related projects like use of trash fish as food for the crabs instead of commercial formulated feeds, avoid poaching of highly-priced reared crabs, and efficient site selection to prevent typhoon- induced damages. In terms of the community-based multi-species hatchery of crabs, it turned out to be feasible, yet it needs very careful water management and feeding schemes to prevent microbial contamination and to avoid severe cannibalism. All these issues and concerns, as well as the recommendations set were presented and discussed by the Regional Steering Committee of PNAP which was composed of the BFAR 10 personnel and project implementers. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The MSU Naawan PNAP Team gratefully acknowledged the financial support of BFAR Region 10, the support of CHED and MSU Naawan administration, and the moral support of the PO beneficiaries from the three provinces of Misamis Oriental, Misamis Occidental and Lanao del Norte. CONFLICT OF INTEREST The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interests regarding the publication of this manuscript. The natural ecological and economic benefits lost with mangrove loss are significant and non- retrievable. However, there are simple approaches and understandable by most people that can help protect and manage our mangroves. There are four management options that have been identified for mangroves. Establishing and managing mangrove nurseries would help ensure the availability of planting materials, as well as production of high quality seedlings. By establishing and maintaining mangrove plantations aside from natural mangrove forests, the benefits of mangroves including protection from coastlines, source of food and fisheries are maximized. Community-based forest management agreement is a production sharing agreement entered into between a community and the government to develop, utilize, manage and conserve a specific portion of the forest land, and in this case mangrove forests. Rather than just cutting entire mangrove trees, residents plant and maintain mangrove trees to promote faster growth and better quality wood products.

Aqua-silviculture, which is the conversion of fishpond area into a site where mangroves can grow and fish can thrive is a suggested fishpond restoration strategy. Links to this post Status and Threats to our Mangroves STATUS OF MANGROVES Forested mangrove area has decreased greatly in the Philippines from an estimated coverage of 450,000 hectares in 1918 to less than 120,000 hectares in the late 1990’s. The most rapid decrease in mangrove coverage happened during the 1960’s and 70’s when aquaculture was promoted by the national government. THREATS TO OUR MANGROVES The culprits in the decline of our mangroves are many, but the primary one is conversion to aquaculture ponds and conversion to urban land reclamation and other land uses. If this trend continues, there will be virtually no mangroves left in the Philippines after another 50 years.

Aside from natural or indirect threats to mangroves, human interventions, mainly fishpond conversion caused the decline of mangrove forests in the country. Now, mangrove forests remaining along the Philippine coasts are of much lower quality than those found in the early centuries. Other causes of mangrove decline include reclamation of mangrove areas for various developments such as wharfs, piers, airports, housing and industrial zones; Pollution and siltation; Dikes and structures obstructing waterways and tidal inundation that disturbs the tidal flow; Overexploitation and utilization, including harvesting of mangrove trees for charcoal, timber and other uses; and disturbance due to gleaning, fish landing. Links to this post Importance of Mangrove Ecosystems MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM The basic coastal ecosystems are critically linked in such a way that there is a mutual exchange of benefits between and among these ecosystems. For instance, the algae and bacteria growing in the healthy mangrove forest and seagrass beds are vital to the nutrients needed by the coral reef animals. Moreover, mangrove and seagrass habitats serve as nursery grounds and feeding areas for coral reef and small pelagic fish.

The disruption of one ecosystem affects the whole coastal environment, which as a consequence leads to loss of life and property. Mangroves provide numerous products and benefits. Mangroves provide good nurseries for the young animals because the extensive rooting structures serve as hiding places for young fish, shrimp, crabs and other animals in the sea. This protection, along with the abundant food supply that comes from mangrove leaves, makes mangrove areas very good nurseries. For every hectare of mangrove cut down, a corresponding reduction in fish catch is estimated at 1.08 tons per hectare per year. One great benefit of mangroves is the nutrients produced from decomposing leaf litter. Known as “detritus” these small pieces, almost invisible to the naked eye is broken down by bacteria, fungi and micro-organisms that serves as nutritious food for shellfish, shrimps, and fish. A healthy mangrove can contribute about 3.65 tons of litter per hectare per year that helps maintain the delicate food chain or food web of the coastal ecosystem.

The crown and stem of mangroves serve as physical barriers. Their specialized roots trap and hold sediments and siltation from the uplands. Further, mangroves promote clear water and the growth of corals and seagrasses. Mangroves provide shelter for local and migratory birds, and other interesting animals making mangrove forests attractive ecological destinations and field laboratories for biology and ecology students, researchers, birdwatchers and tourist. The Olango Island Wildlife Sanctuary is one example in Cebu. Mangroves are a good source of wood and timber and nipa shingles for housing materials, firewood, charcoal. Some mangrove species have medicinal value; others provide tannin for leather preservation and dyes for cloth. The sap are even used in some areas for food, including fermented drinks. Aqua-culture and commercial fisheries depend on mangroves, for young and mature fish species. While crabs, fish and prawns are also harvested for human consumption.