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d) How to show cause – effect relationships.

In today‘s lesson we shall consider two more ways of organizing texts: (i) Spatial relationships (ii) Classification.

Spatial Relationships: We shall look at some of the conventions that are used in the description of spatial relationships and you will be provided with practice in writing spatial descriptions. The word spatial means dealing with, happening or existing in space. While writing, very often, we have to describe the location of a place, how a place is laid out, or how a set of things / objects are connected. Now you shall look at some ways of describing things spatially.

Practice 1: Read the following passage and note the expressions which tell the reader where the place is.

SHIRAZ CENTER Shiraz Center is a complex mixture of high and low buildings on the edge of Shahdara and the adjoining locality of Gujranwala, just to the North East of Lahore. Although the site itself was industrial wasteland, it is in the heart of a residential district. Along one side of it, runs a rail track, but in every other direction it is surrounded by bungalows and double story apartment flats. Both Shahdara and Gujranwala are fairly prosperous areas, but Gujranwala in particular, has undergone extensive industrial development.

There are basically two ways of organizing a description of a place. One way is to describe the place as if it was being seen from the air - i.e. a bird‘s eye view. The other is to describe it from the point of view of a walk through it, which is known as a pedestrian's view. e.g. The sentence ‗Afghanistan is a landlocked country‘ seems to be about Afghanistan. In this case ‗Afghanistan‘ is also the subject of the sentence. However, in the sentence ‗To the East lies Pakistan‘, ‗To the East‘ is not the subject but is very important information as it locates the position of Afghanistan in terms of some reference point which we already know. to the North to the West Afghanistan to the East

Practice 2: Read the following texts and see which is easier to understand.

a) I live in Quetta. The capital of Baluchistan is Quetta. A part of Pakistan is Baluchistan. I live in Quetta. It is the capital of Baluchistan. Baluchistan is a part of Pakistan.

Practice 3. Read the spatial description of Lahore and underline the location expressions that are used to guide the reader through the description.

LAHORE: THE OLD & MODERN CITY

The hub of the old city of Lahore is the spacious Minar-e-Pakistan grounds which used to be called Minto Park (the place where the historic Lahore Resolution, demanding the creation of Pakistan, was made in 1940). Here some of the city‘s main traffic arteries meet. To the South West of the park are the old Mughal buildings: the Badshahi Mosque built by Emperor Aurangzeb, the Old Fort dating back to Emperor Akbar, the first Mughal ruler, as well as the famous Demontmorency College of Dentistry. To the North East is the depleted river Ravi. To the North West of the park is the tomb of Ali Hajwairy, popularly known as Data Sahib, the patron Saint of Lahore. Just beyond Data Sahib are located the district and session courts, leading on to the main road of Lahore, The Mall. It is lined by important buildings like the old Punjab University, The National College of Arts, the Lahore Museum as well as hotels. The goods sold in the shops, here, are marked with fixed prices which cannot be reduced by bargaining as in the shops in the old walled city.

Note: Descriptions of spatial locations are normally organized according to conventional ways of looking at scenes. The most common are:  general to particular  whole to part  large to small  outside to inside  top to bottom  left to right / vice versa The main point is to be consistent. What ever convention you choose, should be consistent and you should use it throughout, so that the reader may not get confused.

Ways of classifying things: How to relate classification to conventions of writing and to practice writing texts based on classification. One of the easiest ways to organize things is to look for relationships among objects or ideas and arrange them according to their similarities and differences.

Practice 4:

Look at the following set of words and put them into groups. (a) anger love fear emotion envy (b) table menu waiter restaurant cash register (c) greetings a wave ‗hello‘ ‗hi‘ ‗salaam‘ (d) sleep, dream, manager, intelligent happy, teacher.

Practice 5:

The following sentences form a text which refers to the classification chart on FRUITS. Except for the first sentence, they are not in the most logical order. Try to arrange the

sentences according to a logical order to form a complete text which fits the organization of the classification chart. (i) There are three general types of fruits: simple, aggregate and multiple fruits. ( __ ) (ii) Examples of dry dehiscent fruits are fruits of the African tulip, rubber and pod of the flame of a forest. ( __ ) (iii) An aggregate fruit is one which develops from a flower with several ovaries. ( __ ) (iv) An example of fleshy indehiscent fruits is the papaya, mango and banana. ( __ ) (v) Each ovary develops into a separate fruit; and so a cluster of fruits may arise from the main fruit stalk. ( __ ) (vi) The guava, tomato and coconut are simple fruits. ( __ ) (vii) A composite or multiple fruit is one which develops from a group of flowers ( __ ) (viii) The Jack fruit and the Pineapple are examples of multiple fruits. ( __ ) (ix) Both dry and fleshy fruits may be either dehiscent (i.e. they split open allowing the seed to escape when ripe) or indehiscent (i.e. they do not split open when ripe. ( __ ) (x) Fruits are also classified as dry and fleshy fruits. ( __ )

Writing a Classification: Writing a classification is based on convention i.e. how others have done it. But it is mainly based on your purpose in making the classification. Data and ideas are divided into categories and this is done in a logical way. Some types of order are: (i) according to time (oldest to newest) (ii) General to particular, (iii) Scale: (a) Importance: most important to least important (b) Size: largest to smallest (c) Familiarity: best known to least known

Practice 6: (Sample)

Formal Education Informal

Full time part time - correspondence course School evening classes Open University College short intensive courses T.V. broadcasts University research based study radio broadcasts Adult learning centers Self study course

Practice 7: See how this letter is addressed. Dr. Ms. A. T. Shah

41, St. 27

Mohalla Araian Sialkot. Punjab. Pakistan. The logical order, here is, from the smallest unit (house to the largest (country)

In today‘s lesson you learned how texts are organized according to a pedestrian‘s view and bird‘s eye view. You became familiar with some expressions of location and learned how to use them in writing. You also learned how data can be classified and arranged in diagrams and texts. You should now be familiar with some expressions of classification and will be able to use them in sentences and texts.

Lesson -

Writing Skills

Paraphrasing In today‘s lesson you will learn about two things; 1- How to paraphrase 2- To write a summary. One of the things you have to learn in studying English is, how to express yourself in more than one ways. This can be best done by practice in paraphrasing. A paraphrase is the expression of the meaning of a passage in a different way. Paraphrasing is a writing skill in which an idea (s) or information written in another way without changing the meaning. It is, in other words, writing the given information in different words i.e. you re-phrase the words without changing its original meaning. Paraphrasing is often used in place of direct quoting what a writer has said. It is a skill and is used to rewrite short selections, a series of sentences or paragraphs. A paraphrase is usually as long as the original text in order to communicate its full meaning. Here are some techniques that can help you in writing a paragraph.

1. Your paraphrase may contain some words from the original passage but try to use synonyms wherever possible.

2. Change direct quotations to indirect quotations - i.e. use reported speech

3. Change active sentences to passive sentences and vice versa.

Step 1. Read the passage carefully a number of times till you understand it fully. Step 2. Look up words in a dictionary that you do not understand. Try to find synonyms for them. Step 3. Jot down the main points of the passage. Step 4. Make an outline with the help of the points you have jotted down. Remember your outline should contain a The main idea b. the main supporting ideas or points c. the primary and secondary supporting details. Step 5. Write the paraphrase using your own words without omitting any essential idea. Step 6. Polish the paraphrase.

Practice 1: It is said that, when in 1998, Brazil lost the World Cup to France; the Brazilians were so disheartened that one had the impression that a big national disaster had taken place and the country itself had died. They say that many did die of sadness. Defeat in championship matches has often caused heart attacks and the despair of the public is usually so great that many take their own lives. Such is the passion of football fans. Outline A Brazil lost World Cup 1998

1. Entire country sad
2. Some deaths

B Possible defeat causes strong reaction.

1. Heart attacks
2. Suicides C Football fans very emotional. Paraphrase: In 1998 Brazil lost the World Cup to France. The entire country was overcome with sadness; some people even died. Defeat in championship matches causes strong reaction among fans, from heart attacks to even suicides. Football fans are very emotional about the game.

Practice 2: The best approach to students‘ co-operation is the organization of thrift societies. The principle of thrift is as important from the co-operative as it is from the educational point of view. Thrift gives a basic foundation to character and it is easy to form this habit in one‘s early life. In the process of the formation of this habit, the young student will have to exercise rigorous self-discipline which will not only have a great effect on his own spiritual life but will react on his family, and through the family on society as a whole. Words: Thrift = saving, economy. Rigorous = firm, demanding, strict. Outline: How students can best cooperate -- thrift societies -- threefold value of thrift -- foundation of character -- formation of habits -- exercise of strict disciplines -- effect of thrift -- its deeper influence, spiritually and financially.

Practice 3. Each of us is here for a brief sojourn ; for what purpose, he knows not. Though he sometimes thinks he feels it, but from the point of view of daily life, without going deeper, we exist for our fellowmen ---in the first place for those, one depends, and next for all those, unknown to us personally with whose destinies we are bound up by the tie of sympathy. A hundred times every day I remind myself that my inner and outer life depends on the labors of other men, living and dead, and that I must exert myself in order to give in the same measure as I have received and am still receiving. - Albert Einstein

Sojourn = stay, rest, stopover, visit Destiny = lives, fate, fortunes Exert = effort, apply Measure = amount, portion, share

Outline: Our life brief -- purpose unknown-- but simply felt -- our immediate relation first to those with whom we are intimate, then to those we are allied with by sympathy -- the dependence of my life on the labor of the living and the dead -- feel the duty of give and take.

Practice 4 :

Paraphrase the following passage. Follow the steps given earlier.

Kaleem Omar, the journalist, has studied Japanese business customs and habits. He says that the Japanese prefer to work collectively as members of groups rather than individually. This, he says, is one of the main reasons for Japan‘s economic success.

Outline. A. Reported that Japanese work in groups not as individual. B. This reason for Japanese economic success.

Paraphrase: K. Omar the journalist says that the Japanese like to work together in groups and not singly. He believes that this feature is one of the most important factors responsible for Japanese economic success.

Practice 5:

POEM Lives of great men all remind us We can make our lives sublime , And departing leave behind us Footprints on the sands of time, Footprints that perhaps another, Sailing o‘er life‘s solemn main , A forlorn and shipwrecked brother, Seeing, shall take heart again.

(i) Substituting other words:

Sublime – lofty, exalted, eminent, grand, noble- Forlorn- abandoned, deserted, friendless, Solemn - serious, sober, grave Main - (obs.) open sea (ii) The central idea in the above lines is that the lives of all great men remind us of certain duties Removing the inversions and rewriting the sentences in the same order.

Outline: We may make our lives great--- Departing, we may leave behind us footprints on the sands of time---There may be footprints which may be seen by a shipwrecked brother and may help him to take heart again.

Paraphrase: The lives of all great men remind us that we may also live (make) noble (sublime) lives and when we die (departing) we may leave records of our actions (footprints) in this world (sands of time) like the marks of footsteps left by travelers on the sands of the seashore. These records (foot prints) may be noticed by some serious and grave person (a shipwrecked brother) who has no one to guide him (forlorn) and may encourage him (to take heart) in his distress or sorrow.

iv) Polishing : The paraphrase may be written as: The lives of all great men inspire us so that we also may live noble lives, and that, when we die, we may leave behind us records of our noble deeds like the marks of footprints left by a traveler on the sands of the sea shore. These records may, by chance, read by some unfortunate person who, having made a wreck of his life, is in the grip of despair, and this may give him fresh encouragement in his loneliness and misery to make a new start in life.

PRACTICE 6 : News Item Karachi APP – Rescue workers located the body of a New Karachi teenager on the beach at Clifton, one day after a sand bar where he was walking with his friends washed out in the rising tide. Police sources said the body of Mohammad Irfan, 15, was recovered on the beach on Sunday morning. The body was found 2½ miles away from the area where he fell about 6:15 pm., Saturday after noon. The boy and his friend, Ali Zaman, were walking on the sand bar with other teens when the sand washed out form under them, said the victim‘s mother, Zainab Khatoon. Passers-by pulled Ali Zaman to safety, witnesses said.

Pharaphrase: On Sunday, the body of a young man who was drowned while walking on a sand bar, washed away by the tide and was discovered at Clifton beach on Saturday afternoon. His friend who was with him at the time of the accident had been rescued by passers – by.

Some more examples of paraphrase:

1. We have just enough religion to make us hate, but not enough to make us love one another. (Swift) Our religion is not of the true kind, for we act in just the opposite way of its teaching.

2. The narrowest hinge on my hand puts to scorn all machinery. (W. Whitman)

The smallest joint in the bones of my hand is a far more wonderful thing than any machinery.

3. The main argument in favor of keeping the death penalty for murder is that it will frighten men out of the desire to commit the crime. In other words it will act as a preventive. The main argument for retaining capital punishment for murder is that it will act as a deterrent.

4. There are no gains without pains; then help, hands, for I have no lands, or if I have, they are smartly taxed. (Benjamin Franklin) Nothing can be earned without labour, so set to work, my hands, for what land I have is heavily taxed.

5. No man is so void of understanding as to prefer war before peace; for in the letter children bury their fathers; in the former, fathers bury their children. No man would be as stupid as to prefer war over peace; for in peace the young bury the old, while in war the old bury the young who die fighting in war.

6. Applicants are requested to state the reasons for any exceptional treatment they require. (NOTICE AT A HOSPITAL) Applicants should state why they need special treatment.

7. All drivers and visitors to the hospital are strictly forbidden to park in or on the verge of the road. Attention is drawn to the fact that a public car park is available in Millat Street. No parking on this road. Use the park in Millat Street.

8. Civil personnel will halt here and report their presence at the guard room. They will on no account proceed further till vetted and granted clearance by the security officer on duty. Offenders are warned that any failure to observe these regulations will result in detention and prosecution. All civilians will report at the guard room for permission to enter. Offenders will be prosecuted.

9. In cases where the school day is terminated earlier than the normal time owning to the necessity to get pupils home before the onset of monsoon rains, a careful note of the relevant circumstances must be made and transmitted to the Education Office at the earliest possible opportunity. In case the school day is shortened owing to monsoon rains, the Education Office must be informed immediately. The Education Office must be informed as soon as possible if monsoon rains make it necessary to end school earlier than usual.

You looked at different samples of paraphrases – single sentences, short prose passages, a poem, and a news item.

1. Paraphrasing takes time. It cannot be done hastily.
2. In a paraphrase on no account, you must introduce anything which is not in the original, however, much you may wish or want to; that you can do in an essay but not in a paraphrase.
3. Don‘t try to change every word of the original. Some words cannot be suitably replaced.

4. A paraphrase is neither an expansion nor a summary.
5. No introducing sentence is needed to begin it. In today‘s lesson you learned how to express yourself in a different way. Paraphrasing is a very useful writing skill and goes a long way in helping develop your writing abilities.

Lesson -

Writing a Summary

Today‘s lesson deals with another writing skill – how to write a summary. A summary is similar to a paraphrase except that a summary is usually shorter. When you summarize, you compress large amounts of information into the fewest possible sentences. In order to do this, you include only the main points and main supporting points, leaving out the details.

A summary or precis (French word which means the same as summary) is a brief and clear statement in a connected and readable shape of the substance of a longer passage. Definitions are useful things, even when they make the thing defined sound dull as the above definition does. The reasons for learning how to summarize are really sensible. They are:

Definition: A summary or precis (French word which means the same as summary) is a brief and clear statement in a connected and readable shape of the substance of a longer passage.

As a foreign learner of English any examination you take, the examiners are likely to test your ability to read, write and think in English. A summary writing will give you; i) Good practice both in clear writing and clear thinking. ii) It enables you to express in your own words somebody else‘s ideas even if you do not agree with those ideas. iii) Read the passage carefully. iv) Read passage again. Note the different points it contains. Number the points. v) Strike out points not essential to meaning, repetitions, illustrations, anecdotes, comparisons, etc... vi) Arrange points in a best possible way. vii) Write summary – first draft.

Polish the draft: A summary is a brief and clear statement in a connected and readable shape of the substance of a longer passage.

You noticed five words have been underlined.

In the middle ages people had no ideas of scientific farming. Spare cattle were killed and salted for winter eating. Spices were used a lot. They came from the East. The Turks cut the line of supply. Voyages of exploration were undertaken partly to find spices.

As people in the middle ages had no idea of scientific farming, spare cattle had to be killed and salted for winter eating. This unappetizing meat led to a demand for spices, and one reason for the great voyages of exploration was the shortage of spices when the trucks cut the overland route of their supply. Here are some more examples of phrases that would be better expressed in single words:

of a disagreeable nature of a delightful description in a brief manner in a stupid way. of a silly kind

Here are some more examples that show how easy it is to write wordily and also how the wordiness might be avoided.

-Boys whose way of life is cast in an urban environment - town boys ( (11)

Together with the addition of (5) - also (1)

Special attention - special attention will will be paid to be paid to activities activities with an eye to the to cultivate initiative (10) cultivation of the qualities of initiative, etc. (18)

Judged in the light of - Judge by their results (4) their results (7)

In this connection it - Here it should be said (5) should be said (7)

Practice 1: Writing Briefly & Clearly:

1. It is not without interest to observe, in connection with the duration of the school team, that punishments show a tendency to increase in number as the term progresses. (29) It is interesting to note that punishments increase as the school team progresses (13)
2. Having regard to the recent increase in the number of cases of malaria in this area, it is clearly desirable that the scheme for the provision of more doctors should be put into effect. (34)