Pathophysiology Midterm Exam 2024-2025. Questions & Correct Verified Answers. Graded A, Exams of Health sciences

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Pathophysiology Midterm Exam 2024-

2025. Questions & Correct Verified

Answers. Graded A

abnormal blood cells - ANSerythrocytopenia, thrombocytopenia, leukocytopenia, lymphocytopenia (lymphopenia), monocytopenia (monopenia), eosinopenia (eosinophilic leukopenia), neutropenia (neutrophilic leukopenia), basopenia (basophilic leukopenia) acute inflammation - ANS-swelling, heat, pain, redness, and loss of function -result from vascular changes and the subsequent changes and subsequent leakage of circulating components into the tissue -process- vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, leakage of fluid out of the vessel(exudation), causing swelling(edema), increased red cells causes redness(erythema), and warmth, white blood cells adhere to the surrounding tissue adaption types - ANSatrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia

AIDS-acquired immunodeficiency syndrome - ANSthe symptoms and signs present during the late stages of HIV infection, defined by a specified reduction in the number of T cells and the appearance of characteristic secondary infections allergy - ANShypersensitivity to environmental antigens alloimmunity - ANSthe immune system of one individual produces an immunologic reaction against tissues of another individual; can be observed during reaction against transfusion, transplants, or the fetus during pregnancy alterations of erythrocyte function - ANSanemia is a reduction in the total number of circulating erythrocytes or a decrease in the quality or quantity of hemoglobin; causes are -altered production of erythrocytes -blood loss -increased erythrocyte destruction -a combination of all three alterations of leukocyte function - ANStoo many or too few white cells are present in the blood or if the cells that are present are structurally or functionally defective;

anaplasia - ANSLoss of differentiation of cells and reversion to a more primitive, unspecialized cell type. anemia - ANSclassified by their causes or by the changes that affect the size, shape, or substance of the erythrocyte antigenic targets of hypersensitivity reactions - ANS• Allergy

• Environmental Antigens- e.g. Pollen, Grass
• Autoimmunity
• Self Antigens, with damage to host tissues- e.g. Lupus
• Alloimmunity
• Against foreign tissue Antigens- e.g. Heart Transplant antimicrobials - ANSAntibiotics are categorized according to their chemical formulas and have differing effects on various types of bacteria. For example, penicillins work best against certain kinds of gram-positive bacteria but do not work well against some gram-negative bacteria; Because viruses reproduce inside the host cell, it has been more difficult to develop safe and effective antivirals, although the tremendous research into the treatment of HIV disease has helped create new antivirals that can treat other types of viruses as well. Antifungals are frequently highly toxic and have many side effects.

aplastic anemia - ANSerythrocyte stem cells are underdeveloped, defective, or absent; unless a cause is determined, bone marrow aplasia results in death apoptosis - ANSprogrammed cell death; cellular self destruction for elimination of unwanted cell populations atrophy - ANSshrinking in cellular size; capable of making entire organ to shrink, but most common in skeletal muscle, the heart, secondary sex organs, and the brain; aging causes brain cells to atrophy, and endocrine dependent organs to become dependent autoimmunity - ANSa disturbance in the immunologic tolerance of self antigens autophagy - ANSeating of self; recycling factory Bcell immune deficiency - ANSdocumented recurrent infections with microorganisms that require opsonization (encapsulated bacteria), or with viruses against which humoral immunity is normally effective(rubella)

-most cells express plasma membrane pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) that recognize molecules produced by infectious microorganisms(PAMPs) or products of cellular damage(DAMPs) chemokines-cellular products of inflammation - ANSinduce leukocyte chemotaxis chronic cell injury - ANSpersistent stimuli response may involve only specific organelles or cytoskeleton; (ex.phagocytosis of bacteria) chronic inflammation - ANS-lasts 2 weeks or longer regardless of cause -sometimes proceeded by an unsuccessful acute inflammatory response -dense infiltration of lymphocytes and macrophages -body may wall off and isolate the infection to protect against tissue damage by formation of a granuloma clinical manifestation of infection - ANS1. Acute (2-8 wks post-infection) = flu-like symptoms controlled by adaptive immunity, virus replicates and goes to lymph nodes

2. Asymptomatic (months to yrs) = viral replication continues in lymph nodes
3. Chronic symptomatic (months to yrs) = CD4+ T cell levels decline, opportunistic infection start

4. AIDS (<1 yr if untreated) = CD4+ T cell level below 200 cell/microliter blood (CD4 count keeps decreasing), recurring respiratory and opportunistic infections and more susceptible to cancer clinical manifestations of cancer - ANS-diagnoses and staging-requires a biopsy and examination of tumor tissue by a pathologist; staging-size, degree in which it has locally invaded, and the extent to which it has spread -paraneoplastic syndromes-symptom complexes that are triggered by a cancer but are not caused by direct local effects of the tumor mass -pain-most feared complication, little or no pain during early stages, can arise from direct pressure, obstruction, invasion of a sensitive structure, stretching of visceral surfaces, tissue destruction, infection, and inflammation fatigue-most frequently reported symptom, patients complain of tiredness, weakness, lack of energy, exhaustion, lethargy, inability to concentrate, depression, sleeplessness, boredom, lack of motivation, decreased mental status -cachexia-constellation of symptoms- anorexia, early filling, weight loss anemia, asthenia, taste alterations, altered protein, lipid, and carbohydrate metabolism -anemia- 20% of cancer patients are anemic- caused by, chronic bleeding, severe malnutrition, cytotoxic chemotherapy, malignancy in blood forming organs -leukopenia(decreased total white blood cell count) and thrombocytopenia(decreased number of platelets)-caused by direct tumor invasion of the bone marrow

-Antimicrobials and vaccines cytokines-cellular products of inflammation - ANSbiochemical mediators secreted by cells of the innate immune system; responsible for activating other cells; interleukins, chemokines, interferons, and other molecules Diseases and disorders linked to O2 derived free radicals - ANSathrosclerosis, ischemia brain injury, alzheimers disease, neurotoxins, cancer, cardiac myopathy, diabetes mellitus, eye disorders, inflammatory disorders, iron overload, lung disorders, nutritional deficiencies, radiation injury, rheumatoid arthritis, skin disorders, toxic states dysfunctional wound healing - ANScan be related to ischemia, excessive bleeding, excessive fibrin deposition, predisposing disorder, wound infection, inadequate nutrients, numerous drugs, altered collagen synthesis dysplasia - ANSabnormal changes in in the size shape and organization of mature cells; have been linked to cancer; cervix, bronchioles, and breast folate (folic acid) - ANSan essential vitamin required for RNA and DNA synthesis within the erythrocyte

heart valve disorders - ANSimportance and classification depends on 1-type and severity of valve lesion 2-degree of concomitant 3-the underlying illness causing the lesions, Stenosis - narrowing of a heart valve opening. Insufficiency -failure of a valve to close completely. Mitral stenosis - scar formation or defect causing narrowing of the mitral valve. hemolysis - ANSred cell destruction histamine - ANSvasoactive amine; causes dilation of capillaries and retraction of endothelial cells lining the capillaries which increase vascular permiability Hodgkin disease - ANS- Cancer of lymphoid tissue - usually lymph nodes and spleen

• interferes with the body's ability to fight infection
• Diagnosed by presence of Reed Sternberg cells in tissue biopsy
• The stage the disease is in dictates the treatment
• usually seen in young males
• early stages are fairly curable

Symptoms; rapid, weak pulse, low blood pressure, change in mental status, cool, clammy skin, increased respiratory rate. hypoxemia - ANSreduced oxygen level in the blood hypoxia - ANSlack of sufficient oxygen; can cause cell injury; most common cause of cellular injury immune deficiency - ANSthe failure of the immune or inflammatory response to function normally, resulting in increased susceptibility to infections infective cardiac disorders - ANSan infectious disease process of the endocardium or lining of the heart. The most common is in the mitral valve site that is affected by the infection. Microorganisms, such as bacteria or fungi. They entered through the blood and colonize on heart valves. This colonization makes the site extremely resistant to antibiotic treatment. The presence of the thrombus on the valve, though, increases the likelihood of infection developing. -infective endocarditis -pericarditis

inflammation - ANSFirst reaction to tissue injury / infection. Blood vessel dilation, capillary permeability, swelling, migration of granulocytes and macrophages. Purpose: sequester affected tissue and keep infection from spreading; pain, heat, redness, and swelling initial clinical presentation- deficiencies in immunity - ANStendency to develop unusual or recurrent severe infections; preschool-schoolage children have about 6-12 infections a year; adults have 2-4, usually not severe and most commonly upper respiratory tract infections, strep pharyngitis, ear infections innate immunity - ANSnatural or native immunity; includes natural barrios and innflamation interferons--cellular products of inflammation - ANSproduced by cells that infected by a virus; once released from cells they stimulate neighboring healthy cells to produce substances that prevent viral infection iron deficiency anemia - ANSmost common around the world irreversible cell injury - ANSstructurally when severe vacuolization of mitochondria occurs and calcium moves into cell

disorganized stroma (the surrounding capsule of connective tissue), lack a capsule and grow to invade nearby blood vessels, lymphatics, and surrounding structures, MOST deadly characteristic is their ability to spread far beyond the tissue of origin (metastasis) Mast cell - ANSmost important activator of the inflammatory response; initiates inflammation by releasing biochemical mediators (histamine) in response to a stimulus mechanisms of cellular injury - ANSdepletion of ATP; mitochondrial damage; loss of calcium homeostasis; oxidative stress; defects in membrane permeability; DNA damage; unfolded/misfolded proteins mechanisms of cellular injury; epigenetic factors - ANSgene silencing in cancer mechanisms of cellular injury; genetic factors - ANSsickle cell anemia, Huntington disease, muscular dystrophy, abetalipoproteinemia, familial hypercholesterolemia mechanisms of cellular injury; illumination - ANSeyestrain, obscured vision, cataracts, headaches, melenoma

mechanisms of cellular injury; noise - ANShearing impairment or loss, tinnitus, vascular disorders, noise mechanisms of cellular injury; nutritional imbalances - ANSprotein, calorie, glucose, lipid, vitamin deficiencies mechanisms of cellular injury; radiation - ANSxrays mechanisms of cellular injury; temperature - ANSfrostbite, burns, blisters, heat cramps, heat exhaustion, blast injury, heat stroke mechanisms of hypersensitivity - ANSType I: IgE mediated reactions Type II: Tissue-specific reactions Type III: Immune complex mediated reactions Type IV: Delayed Cell-mediated reactions metaplasia - ANSreversible replacement of one mature cell type by another; ex. esophagus after reflux, and bronchial mucosa due to smoking

parasympathetic overstimulation or sympathetic understimulation persists, sustained vasodilation occurs, and blood pools in the venous and capillary beds. neutropenia - ANSa condition associated with a reduction in circulating neutrophils and exists clinically when the neutrophil count is less than 2000/mm cubed peripheral vascular disorders - ANSThe term peripheral vascular disease (PVD) refers to conditions of the arteries, veins, and lymph vessels outside the heart. Intermittent claudication-symptom of ischemia causing cramping and weakness on the claves while walking Relieve by rest; genetics, obesity, and smoking are leading causes; aneurysm, venous thrombisis/thrombophlebitis, varicose veins, Buergers disease, Raynauds disease/phenomenon platelet disorders - ANSPrimary cause of bleeding is an abnormality in the quantity or quality of platelets May be acquired or inherited primary (congenital) immune deficiency - ANScaused by a genetic defect proinflammatory cytokines - ANSmost important are-interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-a)

resolution - ANSthe return of tissue to nearly normal structure and function; repair is healing by scar tissue formation reversible cell injury - ANSloss of ATP, cellular swelling, detachment of ribosomes, autophagy of lysosome second line of defense - ANSinflammation secondary (acquired) immune deficiency - ANScaused by a condition such as cancer, aging, infection; more common than congenital; AIDS conditions associated with-pregnancy, infancy, aging, psychological stress, dietary insufficiencies, malignancies, physical trauma, medical treatments, diabetes, alcoholic cirrhosis, sickle cell, systemic lupus septic shock - ANSstage of sepsis and SIRS when multiple organ faulure is evident and uncontrolled bleeding occurs. Death rate is 60 %. Severe hypovolemic shock is present with hypodynamic cardiac function, this results in inability of blood to clot; common cause of death in ICU