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A comprehensive overview of key concepts related to blood, hemostasis, and the cardiovascular system. It includes detailed explanations of blood composition, functions, and types, as well as the mechanisms of hemostasis and coagulation. The document also covers the structure and function of the heart, including the conduction system and the regulation of blood pressure. It is a valuable resource for students studying physiology and related fields.
Typology: Exams
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What is acidosis, the 2 types of acid-base disturbances, and their meanings? - ANSWER✔✔-pH is acidic
it will decrease the pH respiratory(compensation done by the metabolic system): kidneys will increase secretion of HCO3-, and because HCO3- is basic, it decreases the pH What are the functions of blood? - ANSWER✔✔-transportation of nutrients and hormones
hemoglobin binding and release What are the characteristics of Right Shift in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve? - ANSWER✔✔-hemoglobin has a low affinity to O2, so oxygen is released to tissues
and heme that gets broken down into bilirubin What is hemostasis? - ANSWER✔✔the process in which our body stops bleeding What are the 2 types of hemostasis? - ANSWER✔✔-platelet plug(primary): for minor injuries
What are the antigens and antibodies for the ABO blood types? - ANSWER✔✔type A: A antigens and anti-B antibodies type B: B antigens and anti-A antibodies type AB: A and B antigens and no antibodies type O: no antigens and both anti A and B antibodies What are the antigens and antibodies for the Rh blood types? - ANSWER✔✔Rh+: Rh antigens and no anti-Rh antibodies Rh-: no Rh antigens and anti-Rh antibodies What is the function of the SA node? - ANSWER✔✔starts the impulse and spreads it to both the atria and this causes both atria to contract. the impulse then travels to the next segment What is the function of the AV node? - ANSWER✔✔slows the impulses down, giving the ventricles time to fill with blood. the impulse then travels to the next segment What is the function of the Bundle of Hiss? - ANSWER✔✔receives impulse from the AV node and gives it to the Purjinke fibers What is the function of the Purjinke fibers? - ANSWER✔✔receives impulse and spreads it among the ventricles, causing the ventricles to contract What are the 4 parts of the conduction system of the heart in order? - ANSWER✔✔SA node, AV node, Bundle of Hiss, Purjinke Fibers What are the steps of SA node action potential? - ANSWER✔✔pacemaker potential: slow depolarization because Na+ channels open and K+ channels close
depolarization: action potential reaches threshold due to the influx of CA2+ through CA2+ channels repolarization: repolarization due to CA2+ closing and K+ channels opening What are the steps of Myocardial cell action potential? - ANSWER✔✔depolarization: opening of fast voltage-gated sodium channels, sodium enters and membrane becomes positive early repolarization: opening of voltage-gated potassium channels, potassium leaves and membrane becomes negative plateau: opening of voltage-gated calcium channels, calcium enters and potassium leaves, membrane is stable(plateaus) repolarization: voltage-gated potassium channels are open, potassium leaves and membrane becomes negative What are the segments of an ECG reading, and what do they represent? - ANSWER✔✔P wave: atrial depolarization QRS complex: ventricular depolarization T wave: ventricular depolarization What is pulse? - ANSWER✔✔the stretching and recoiling of the arteries What is blood pressure? - ANSWER✔✔the force of blood against the walls of the arteries What are the 2 stages of blood pressure and what do they represent? - ANSWER✔✔systole: heart contracting and ejecting blood diastole: heart relaxed and filling with blood
What is MAP and what does it mean? - ANSWER✔✔-mean arterial pressure, and it is the pressure that propels the blood to the tissues What are the 2 equations to find MAP? - ANSWER✔✔DP(diastolic pressure) + PP(pulse pressure)/3 (2 x DP) + SP / 3 What is pulse pressure? - ANSWER✔✔the difference between the systolic and diastolic pressures What are the results of low blood pressure and high blood pressure? - ANSWER✔✔low pressure: low blood flow, hypoxia, necrosis high pressure: damages arteries due to excessive force, then organ damage high pressure again: increased heart work load due to higher pressure can lead to heart attack What detects blood pressure and where are they located? - ANSWER✔✔baroreceptors that are located in the carotid artery, aortic arch, and kidney What is cardiac output(CO)? - ANSWER✔✔the amount of blood ejected by the heart per minute What is stroke volume(SV)? - ANSWER✔✔the amount of blood ejected by the heart in a cardiac cycle What will happen to the 5 blood pressure parameters if blood pressure is low/high? - ANSWER✔✔low: all of the 5 parameters will increase and blood pressure will increase high: all of these 5 parameters will decrease and blood pressure will decrease What are the 5 parameters that regulate/maintain blood pressure? - ANSWER✔✔-heart rate(HR)
pressure, that in turn brings up blood pressure What happens to the heart rate parameter once blood pressure drops? - ANSWER✔✔once BP drops, baroreceptors get stimulated, baroreceptors stimulate medulla, medulla stimulated SNS, SNS activates, epinephrine and norepinephrine are released, adrenal medulla stimulated, more epi and norepi is released, SA node is stimulated, and heart rate goes back up What happens to the blood volume parameter once blood pressure drops? - ANSWER✔✔once BP drops, blood volume is increased by activating the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system that makes more blood, bringing blood volume back up What happens to the stroke volume parameter once blood pressure drops? - ANSWER✔✔once BP drops, baroreceptors get stimulated, baroreceptors stimulate medulla, medulla activates SNS, epi and norepi released, activates all 3 muscle types(smooth, cardiac, skeletal) to contract, bringing up venous return, bringing up EDV, bringing up SV, bringing up CO, bringing up BP What happens to the peripheral resistance parameter once blood pressure drops? - ANSWER✔✔once BP drops, baroreceptors get stimulated, baroreceptors stimulate medulla, medulla activates SNS, [epi and norepi are released, alpha receptors in arterial walls are activated, Ca is released and binds to smooth muscles, leads to vasoconstriction, bringing up peripheral resistance, bringing up BP], or [blood viscosity increases, bringing up PR and BP] What are tropomyosin and troponin? - ANSWER✔✔tropomyosin: long fibrous protein, rope shaped troponin: spherical protein made up of 3 subunits(Tt- troponin-tropomyosin, Ti- troponin-interaction, Tc- troponin-calcium) What does a thin filament consist of? - ANSWER✔✔2 chains of actin subunits twisted into a helix, plus 2 types of regulatory proteins: tropomyosin(strand) and troponin(ball)
What is the troponin-tropomyosin complex? - ANSWER✔✔troponin and tropomyosin are bound together as one protein that is found around actin molecules What does a thick filament consist of? - ANSWER✔✔many myosin molecules whose heads protrude at opposite ends of the filament What does a singular myosin molecule consist of? - ANSWER✔✔a tail, 2 heads that form as ATP- binding sites, a flexible hinge region What are the 2 forms of ATP that can be attached to a myosin head of a thick filament? - ANSWER✔✔ATP: low energy configuration because it is harder for myosin to use ADP and Pi: high energy configuration because myosin can use it easier What are the 4 key things that make a skeletal muscle contract and relax? - ANSWER✔✔-skeletal muscle activation by nerve
action potential
What are cytokines? - ANSWER✔✔chemicals released by the WBCs that affect growth and activity of other WBCs What is the function of WBCs? - ANSWER✔✔to defend us against microbes and diseases due to abnormal cells What are the characteristics of basophils? - ANSWER✔✔rare, blue-colored granules that contain histamine and heparin, in charge of allergic reactions and protects against parasites What are the characteristics of eosinophils? - ANSWER✔✔blue-colored granules, in charge of allergic reactions and protects against parasites, their chemicals are toxic to other cells What are the characteristics of neutrophils? - ANSWER✔✔non-stained granules, the most abundant leukocyte, the first to combat infection, protect against bacteria What are the characteristics of monocytes and macrophages? - ANSWER✔✔monocyte: found in blood, and once it enters a tissue, it becomes an "antigen-presenting cell" macrophage: a phagocyte that ingests foreign pathogens What are the characteristics of a dendritic cell and lymphocytes? - ANSWER✔✔dendritic cell: found in tissues and a type of "antigen-presenting cell" lymphocytes: 3 types(T cells, B cells, NK cells) What are the characteristics of a natural killer cell? - ANSWER✔✔destroys cancer and virus cells, part of the innate immune systeWhat are the 2 types of respiration? - ANSWER✔✔internal respiration and external respiration In which direction does air flow due to pressure differences? - ANSWER✔✔from a high area to a low
area What is internal respiration? - ANSWER✔✔Gas exchange that occurs between the aleveoli and RBCs, and between the RBCs and tissue What is external respiration? - ANSWER✔✔air movement between the lungs and the atmosphere What is inhalation? - ANSWER✔✔when air moves from the atmosphere into the lungs What is exhalation? - ANSWER✔✔when air moves from the lungs into the atmosphere What is Boyle's Law? - ANSWER✔✔that pressure and volume are inversely proportional What is the atmospheric pressure at sea level? - ANSWER✔✔760 mmHg What is intrapulmonary pressure? - ANSWER✔✔pressure inside the lungs What is intrapulmonary volume? - ANSWER✔✔volume inside the lungs What is the atmospheric pressure and intrapulmonary pressure when you are at rest?(neither inhaling or exhaling) - ANSWER✔✔760mmHg What is the lung volume during rest? - ANSWER✔✔400ml air For inspiration, is the intrapulmonary pressure higher or lower than the atmospheric pressure? - ANSWER✔✔lower What are the steps of inspiration? - ANSWER✔✔-blood O2 levels are low, while CO2 is high
The volume of blood pumped out of the heart from one ventricle during one contraction - ANSWER✔✔Stroke Volume (SV) The rapid depolarization phase of the action potentials of myocardial contractile cells is due to which ion(s)? - ANSWER✔✔Na+ only The volume of blood in the ventricle available to be pumped out of the heart during one contraction - ANSWER✔✔End- diastolic volume (EDV) The volume of blood left in the ventricle after it contracts - ANSWER✔✔End- systolic volume (ESV) The volume of blood ejected from each ventricle during a contraction - ANSWER✔✔Stroke volume (SV) What happens when calcium binds to troponin? - ANSWER✔✔Tropomyosin is pulled away from the myosin-binding site on actin. The driving force for blood flow is a(n) ________ gradient. - ANSWER✔✔pressure Which would NOT cause an increase in blood pressure? - ANSWER✔✔a decrease in cardiac output Match the name of the wave with the correlated event: ventricular depolarization - ANSWER✔✔QRS complex The function of transverse tubules is to - ANSWER✔✔rapidly conduct action potentials to the interior of the muscle fiber. Which is greater:
A) blood pressure when the peripheral vessels constrict B) blood pressure when the peripheral vessels dilate - ANSWER✔✔A) blood pressure when the peripheral vessels constrict The P wave of an ECG corresponds to - ANSWER✔✔depolarization of the atria The reflex that compliments a withdrawal reflex by making compensatory adjustments on the opposite side of the body receiving the stimulus is the - ANSWER✔✔crossed extensor reflex Your instructor announces a pop quiz. Which would you expect? - ANSWER✔✔Increased sympathetic signaling and increased cardiac output This protein is activated by the Ca2+-calmodulin complex to phosphorylate the myosin light chain protein. - ANSWER✔✔myosin light chain kinase In which situation would end- systolic volume (ESV) be the greatest? - ANSWER✔✔when parasympathetic stimulation of the heart is increased Striated muscles are so- called because of a repeating pattern of light and dark bands. One repeating unit of the banding pattern is called a - ANSWER✔✔Sarcomere The contraction cycle is initiated by the rise in _______ released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). - ANSWER✔✔Ca2+ The cardiac output is equal to the - ANSWER✔✔product of heart rate and stroke volume The importance of the plateau phase of the action potential of myocardial cells is in - ANSWER✔✔preventing tetanus
If cardiac output increases and resistance in arterioles does NOT change, what happens to arterial blood pressure? - ANSWER✔✔increases The action potential traveling along the t-tubule changes the conformation of the - ANSWER✔✔dihydropyridine (DHP) receptor (L- type calcium channel) Restoring lost fluid from the capillaries back to the circulatory system is one of the major functions of the ________ system. - ANSWER✔✔lymphatic An increase in plasma potassium levels is properly called - ANSWER✔✔hyperkalemia Chief cells secrete - ANSWER✔✔pepsinogen The hormone vasopressin - ANSWER✔✔stimulates kidneys to retain water The enzyme renin is responsible for the production of - ANSWER✔✔Angiotensin I A glomerulus is - ANSWER✔✔a "ball" of capillaries within Bowman's capsule Dehydration leads to ________ blood volume, ________ blood pressure, and ________ osmolarity. - ANSWER✔✔decreased, decreased, increased G cells of the stomach secrete - ANSWER✔✔gastrin Increased angiotensin II levels would result in increased - ANSWER✔✔a. blood volume b. retention of water c. blood pressure d. retention of sodium ions at the kidney
(All of the above) The Bowman's capsule and glomerulus make up the - ANSWER✔✔renal corpuscle Which ion is NOT directly regulated by the kidney? - ANSWER✔✔OH- Short reflexes of the digestive system are integrated in the __________ nervous system - ANSWER✔✔enteric movement from the glomerulus to the nephron lumen - ANSWER✔✔filtration Bile salts aid in the digestion of fats by ________ large fat droplets. - ANSWER✔✔emulsifying The hormone that directly controls water reabsorption by the kidneys is - ANSWER✔✔ADH vasopressin Bile is secreted from the _______ and stored in the ________. - ANSWER✔✔liver, gallbladder A patient had an opioid overdose causing respiratory depression. Which would you expect for kidney compensation? - ANSWER✔✔Increased hydrogen ion excretion and increased bicarbonate ion reabsorption. movement from the peritubular capillaries to the nephron lumen - ANSWER✔✔secretion Angiotensin II stimulates - ANSWER✔✔thirst, vasoconstriction, and release of aldosterone. Which is false about Angiotensin II? - ANSWER✔✔activates parasympathetic output Chyme is released from here - ANSWER✔✔stomach
In a normal kidney, which condition would increase glomerular filtration rate (GFR)? - ANSWER✔✔a decrease in concentration of the plasma proteins in the blood ACE converts - ANSWER✔✔angiotensin I to angiotensin II A patient has a tumor that secretes high levels of aldosterone. Which would you expect? - ANSWER✔✔Hypokalemia and increased potassium in urine An enzyme that will digest proteins into amino acids is - ANSWER✔✔carboxypeptidase Immunoglobulin present in breast milk - ANSWER✔✔IgA What is the third phase of the ovarian cycle called, and what occurs during this time? - ANSWER✔✔Luteal phase; transformation of a ruptured follicle into a corpus luteum The hormone mainly responsible for milk production is - ANSWER✔✔prolactin The role of the pituitary hormone FSH in males is to - ANSWER✔✔initiate sperm production in the testes What is the function of secondary lymphoid tissues? - ANSWER✔✔To allow mature immune cells to interact with pathogens Which hormone released from the hypothalamus regulates gonad function? - ANSWER✔✔Gonadotropin- releasing hormone What are the two primary lymphoid tissues? - ANSWER✔✔thymus and bone marrow Autoimmune diseases are an example of a(n) ________ response by the immune system - ANSWER✔✔incorrect
A genetic defect causes a fetus to not develop a thymus. Which mature cells would you predict to be low? - ANSWER✔✔T lymphocytes When an antigen fragment is bound to a MHC class I molecule to form a MHC- I - antigen complex, it can stimulate a - ANSWER✔✔cytotoxic T- cell How does a sperm manage to penetrate the corona radiata and the zona pellucida and fertilize an egg? - ANSWER✔✔Through an acrosomal reaction What is the outcome when a complement cascade is activated? - ANSWER✔✔Pores are formed in a pathogen membrane, causing it to lyse. A person's blood type is determined by the - ANSWER✔✔presence or absence of specific glycoprotein molecules on their cell membrane Which represents the body's first line of defense to a pathogen? - ANSWER✔✔stomach acid Which embryonic structure gives rise to the seminal vesicles and vas deferens during fetal differentiation into a male? - ANSWER✔✔Wolffian duct Opsonins function by - ANSWER✔✔marking or tagging pathogens so phagocytes can find and ingest them. The first phase of the ovarian cycle is the __________ phase. - ANSWER✔✔follicular In the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle, the ovary is - ANSWER✔✔maturing a follicle Immunoglobulins that attach to mast cells and are involved in allergic reactions are - ANSWER✔✔IgE A zygote with the genotype YO will - ANSWER✔✔die
The hormone mainly responsible for the milk let- down reflex is - ANSWER✔✔oxytocin When the immune system creates a response that is out of proportion to the threat it has been exposed to, the response is called an - ANSWER✔✔allergy or hypersensitivity reaction Stem cells that will form T lymphocytes mature in the - ANSWER✔✔thymus Testosterone is secreted by - ANSWER✔✔Leydig cells Where is the releasing hormone released from? - ANSWER✔✔Hypothalamus Where is the inhibiting hormone released from? - ANSWER✔✔Hypothalamus Where is the Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) released from? - ANSWER✔✔Pituitary gland (Anterior lobe) Where is the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) released from? - ANSWER✔✔Pituitary gland (Anterior Lobe) Where is the Follicle-Stimulating hormone released from? - ANSWER✔✔Pituitary Gland (Anterior lobe) Where is Luteinizing Hormone released from? - ANSWER✔✔Pituitary Gland (Anterior Lobe) Where is Prolactin released from? - ANSWER✔✔Pituitary Gland (Anterior Lobe) Where is the Growth Hormone released from? - ANSWER✔✔Pituitary Gland (Anterior Lobe) Where is Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) released from? - ANSWER✔✔Pituitary Gland (Posterior Lobe) Where is Oxytocin released from? - ANSWER✔✔Pituitary Gland (Posterior Lobe)
Where is Cortisol released from? - ANSWER✔✔Adrenal Gland (Cortex) Where is Aldosterone released from? - ANSWER✔✔Adrenal Gland (Cortex) Where is Epinephrine released from? - ANSWER✔✔Adrenal Gland (Medulla) What is one hormone the kidney releases? - ANSWER✔✔Renin What are the three hormones that the thyroid gland releases? - ANSWER✔✔- Thyroxine
ANSWER✔✔neuroendocrine cells what are the function of neuroendocrine cells? - ANSWER✔✔Release/secrete hormones What are the two types of nuclei cells in the hypothalamus/posterior pituitary? - ANSWER✔✔- supraoptic