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PHYS 261 Final Exam: Blood, Hemostasis, and Cardiovascular System, Exams of Nursing

A comprehensive overview of key concepts related to blood, hemostasis, and the cardiovascular system. It includes detailed explanations of blood composition, functions, and types, as well as the mechanisms of hemostasis and coagulation. The document also covers the structure and function of the heart, including the conduction system and the regulation of blood pressure. It is a valuable resource for students studying physiology and related fields.

Typology: Exams

2024/2025

Available from 01/05/2025

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Download PHYS 261 Final Exam: Blood, Hemostasis, and Cardiovascular System and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity!

WCU PHYS 261 FINAL EXAM 2023-2024 ACTUAL EXAM 2

LATEST VERSIONS A AND B EACH VERSION CONTAINS

100 QUESTIONS AND CORRECT DETAILED ANSWERS

WITH RATIONALES A+GRADE

What is acidosis, the 2 types of acid-base disturbances, and their meanings? - ANSWER✔✔-pH is acidic

  • metabolic: imbalance between acid and base due to excess acid in the body or not enough base in the body
  • respiratory: imbalance between acid and base due to excess CO2 in the body What is alkalosis, the 2 types of acid-base disturbances, and their meanings? - ANSWER✔✔-pH is alkaline(basic)
  • metabolic: imbalance between acid and base due to excess base in body or not enough acid in body respiratory: imbalance between acid and base due to not enough CO2 in body What are the 2 compensations for the 2 types of acidosis? - ANSWER✔✔metabolic(compensation done by the respiratory system): hyperventilation- releasing CO2 because CO2 is an acid, and releasing it will increase the pH respiratory(compensation done by the metabolic system): kidney will increase reabsorption of HCO3-, and because HCO3- is basic, it increases the pH What are the 2 compensations for the 2 types of alkalosis? - ANSWER✔✔metabolic(compensation done by the respiratory system): hypoventilation- retaining CO2 because CO2 is an acid, and retaining

it will decrease the pH respiratory(compensation done by the metabolic system): kidneys will increase secretion of HCO3-, and because HCO3- is basic, it decreases the pH What are the functions of blood? - ANSWER✔✔-transportation of nutrients and hormones

  • regulation of water and pH
  • defense against infections and blood loss What is blood composed of? - ANSWER✔✔fluid plasma and blood cells(RBCs, WBCs, and platelets) What is plasma composed of? - ANSWER✔✔Water, hormones, ions, molecules, and proteins What are the plasma proteins and their functions/characteristics? - ANSWER✔✔albumin: 2/3 of the plasma proteins, produced by liver, creates and maintains oncotic pressure globulins: 3 types- alpha, beta, and gamma, make up immunoglobulins clotting proteins: 12 different types, produced by liver What is erythropoiesis and its characteristics? - ANSWER✔✔-the process of RBC production
  • produced by bone marrow from stem cells, production is controlled by erythropoietin(released by kidneys) What are the functions of hemoglobin and its structure? - ANSWER✔✔-to transport O2 in blood
  • 4 chains with 1 heme group each that contains iron that binds oxygen What is the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve? - ANSWER✔✔factors that influence oxygen-

hemoglobin binding and release What are the characteristics of Right Shift in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve? - ANSWER✔✔-hemoglobin has a low affinity to O2, so oxygen is released to tissues

  • pH is down, DPG is up, and temp is up What are the characteristics of Left Shift in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve? - ANSWER✔✔- hemoglobin has a high affinity to oxygen, so it doesn't release O2 to the tissues
  • pH is up, DPG is down, and temp is down What is hematocrit and its normal values for males and females? - ANSWER✔✔-the oxygen carrying capacity of blood
  • average male percentage range: 43-49%
  • average female percentage range: 37-43% What is the function of iron in blood, the 2 proteins associated with it, and their functions? - ANSWER✔✔-iron binds oxygen, and it is transported in hemoglobin in RBCs
  • transferrin: transports iron along the body
  • ferritin: stores iron along the body What are the characteristics of RBCs? - ANSWER✔✔-around 120 day lifespan
  • shape: biconcave disc
  • destroyed in the spleen by macrophages(WBCs) When RBCs are destroyed in the spleen, what is released? - ANSWER✔✔-chains of amino acids, iron,

and heme that gets broken down into bilirubin What is hemostasis? - ANSWER✔✔the process in which our body stops bleeding What are the 2 types of hemostasis? - ANSWER✔✔-platelet plug(primary): for minor injuries

  • clot formation(secondary): for severe injuries, used along with platelet plug What are the 3 steps in primary hemostasis? - ANSWER✔✔-vessel injury
  • vascular spasm: blood vessel constricts to prevent further blood loss
  • platelet plug formation: platelets stick together to block the leak What are the characteristics of platelets? - ANSWER✔✔-produced by bone marrow from stem cells
  • contains receptors for WWF, TxA2, fibrinogen, collagen, and thrombin
  • contains mediators/chemicals such as factors 5 and 8, WWF, TxA2, and fibrinogen What are the steps for platelet plug formation? - ANSWER✔✔-arrival of platelets
  • binding of platelets to endothelium, and releases collagen and WWF
  • recruitment of other platelets(mediators and chemicals)
  • platelets cluster
  • plug formed What are the steps for clot formation? - ANSWER✔✔-after the steps of platelet formation occur, fibrin clots wrap around the platelet plug and holds it in place
  • after the initial fibrin clot is formed, platelets in the clot contract
  • the clot tightens and the 2 damaged vessel ends are pulled together What are the 3 pathways of coagulation cascade and how are they activated? - ANSWER✔✔-intrinsic pathway: blood comes in contact with damaged/exposed endothelium
  • extrinsic pathway: the vessel wall is damaged
  • common pathway: the result of activating both the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways only because of a severe injury What factors are part of the intrinsic pathway, extrinsic pathway, and the common pathway? - ANSWER✔✔intrinsic pathway: 12, 11, 9 extrinsic pathway: 7 common pathway: 10, 2, 13, 1 What are the 2 categories of blood types? - ANSWER✔✔ABO blood type and Rh blood type What are the 4 ABO blood types? - ANSWER✔✔-type A
  • type B
  • type AB
  • type O What are the 2 Rh blood types? - ANSWER✔✔-Rh+
  • Rh- What do RBCs have that help differentiate blood types? - ANSWER✔✔antigens and antibodies

What are the antigens and antibodies for the ABO blood types? - ANSWER✔✔type A: A antigens and anti-B antibodies type B: B antigens and anti-A antibodies type AB: A and B antigens and no antibodies type O: no antigens and both anti A and B antibodies What are the antigens and antibodies for the Rh blood types? - ANSWER✔✔Rh+: Rh antigens and no anti-Rh antibodies Rh-: no Rh antigens and anti-Rh antibodies What is the function of the SA node? - ANSWER✔✔starts the impulse and spreads it to both the atria and this causes both atria to contract. the impulse then travels to the next segment What is the function of the AV node? - ANSWER✔✔slows the impulses down, giving the ventricles time to fill with blood. the impulse then travels to the next segment What is the function of the Bundle of Hiss? - ANSWER✔✔receives impulse from the AV node and gives it to the Purjinke fibers What is the function of the Purjinke fibers? - ANSWER✔✔receives impulse and spreads it among the ventricles, causing the ventricles to contract What are the 4 parts of the conduction system of the heart in order? - ANSWER✔✔SA node, AV node, Bundle of Hiss, Purjinke Fibers What are the steps of SA node action potential? - ANSWER✔✔pacemaker potential: slow depolarization because Na+ channels open and K+ channels close

depolarization: action potential reaches threshold due to the influx of CA2+ through CA2+ channels repolarization: repolarization due to CA2+ closing and K+ channels opening What are the steps of Myocardial cell action potential? - ANSWER✔✔depolarization: opening of fast voltage-gated sodium channels, sodium enters and membrane becomes positive early repolarization: opening of voltage-gated potassium channels, potassium leaves and membrane becomes negative plateau: opening of voltage-gated calcium channels, calcium enters and potassium leaves, membrane is stable(plateaus) repolarization: voltage-gated potassium channels are open, potassium leaves and membrane becomes negative What are the segments of an ECG reading, and what do they represent? - ANSWER✔✔P wave: atrial depolarization QRS complex: ventricular depolarization T wave: ventricular depolarization What is pulse? - ANSWER✔✔the stretching and recoiling of the arteries What is blood pressure? - ANSWER✔✔the force of blood against the walls of the arteries What are the 2 stages of blood pressure and what do they represent? - ANSWER✔✔systole: heart contracting and ejecting blood diastole: heart relaxed and filling with blood

What is MAP and what does it mean? - ANSWER✔✔-mean arterial pressure, and it is the pressure that propels the blood to the tissues What are the 2 equations to find MAP? - ANSWER✔✔DP(diastolic pressure) + PP(pulse pressure)/3 (2 x DP) + SP / 3 What is pulse pressure? - ANSWER✔✔the difference between the systolic and diastolic pressures What are the results of low blood pressure and high blood pressure? - ANSWER✔✔low pressure: low blood flow, hypoxia, necrosis high pressure: damages arteries due to excessive force, then organ damage high pressure again: increased heart work load due to higher pressure can lead to heart attack What detects blood pressure and where are they located? - ANSWER✔✔baroreceptors that are located in the carotid artery, aortic arch, and kidney What is cardiac output(CO)? - ANSWER✔✔the amount of blood ejected by the heart per minute What is stroke volume(SV)? - ANSWER✔✔the amount of blood ejected by the heart in a cardiac cycle What will happen to the 5 blood pressure parameters if blood pressure is low/high? - ANSWER✔✔low: all of the 5 parameters will increase and blood pressure will increase high: all of these 5 parameters will decrease and blood pressure will decrease What are the 5 parameters that regulate/maintain blood pressure? - ANSWER✔✔-heart rate(HR)

  • blood volume
  • stroke volume(SV)
  • peripheral resistance(PR)
  • blood viscosity What is preload? - ANSWER✔✔the amount of work placed on the heart due to incoming blood from the venous end What is afterload? - ANSWER✔✔amount of work placed on the heart due to outgoing blood from the arterial end What is End Diastolic Volume? - ANSWER✔✔the amount of blood left in the chamber at the end of diastole What is End Diastolic Pressure? - ANSWER✔✔the pressure in the chamber at the end of diastole What is End Systolic Volume? - ANSWER✔✔the amount of blood left in the chamber at the end of systole What is End Systolic Pressures? - ANSWER✔✔the pressure in the chamber at the end of systole What are the equations for BP, CO, and SV? - ANSWER✔✔*BP = CO x PR *CO = HR x SV *SV = EDV - ESV What occurs in the body due to sudden hypotension(a man got shot)? - ANSWER✔✔arterial damage, bleeding profusely due to arterial damage, blood pressure drops and stimulates baroreceptors, baroreceptors stimulate medulla, medulla stimulates SNS, that brings up the 5 parameters of blood

pressure, that in turn brings up blood pressure What happens to the heart rate parameter once blood pressure drops? - ANSWER✔✔once BP drops, baroreceptors get stimulated, baroreceptors stimulate medulla, medulla stimulated SNS, SNS activates, epinephrine and norepinephrine are released, adrenal medulla stimulated, more epi and norepi is released, SA node is stimulated, and heart rate goes back up What happens to the blood volume parameter once blood pressure drops? - ANSWER✔✔once BP drops, blood volume is increased by activating the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system that makes more blood, bringing blood volume back up What happens to the stroke volume parameter once blood pressure drops? - ANSWER✔✔once BP drops, baroreceptors get stimulated, baroreceptors stimulate medulla, medulla activates SNS, epi and norepi released, activates all 3 muscle types(smooth, cardiac, skeletal) to contract, bringing up venous return, bringing up EDV, bringing up SV, bringing up CO, bringing up BP What happens to the peripheral resistance parameter once blood pressure drops? - ANSWER✔✔once BP drops, baroreceptors get stimulated, baroreceptors stimulate medulla, medulla activates SNS, [epi and norepi are released, alpha receptors in arterial walls are activated, Ca is released and binds to smooth muscles, leads to vasoconstriction, bringing up peripheral resistance, bringing up BP], or [blood viscosity increases, bringing up PR and BP] What are tropomyosin and troponin? - ANSWER✔✔tropomyosin: long fibrous protein, rope shaped troponin: spherical protein made up of 3 subunits(Tt- troponin-tropomyosin, Ti- troponin-interaction, Tc- troponin-calcium) What does a thin filament consist of? - ANSWER✔✔2 chains of actin subunits twisted into a helix, plus 2 types of regulatory proteins: tropomyosin(strand) and troponin(ball)

What is the troponin-tropomyosin complex? - ANSWER✔✔troponin and tropomyosin are bound together as one protein that is found around actin molecules What does a thick filament consist of? - ANSWER✔✔many myosin molecules whose heads protrude at opposite ends of the filament What does a singular myosin molecule consist of? - ANSWER✔✔a tail, 2 heads that form as ATP- binding sites, a flexible hinge region What are the 2 forms of ATP that can be attached to a myosin head of a thick filament? - ANSWER✔✔ATP: low energy configuration because it is harder for myosin to use ADP and Pi: high energy configuration because myosin can use it easier What are the 4 key things that make a skeletal muscle contract and relax? - ANSWER✔✔-skeletal muscle activation by nerve

  • activation causes Ca levels to increase
  • Ca permits contraction and its absence prevents contraction
  • no stimulation by nerve equals relaxation(no Ca) What are the 3 processes involved in skeletal muscle contraction? - ANSWER✔✔neuromuscular junction process: the release of a neurotransmitter and innervation of the muscles excitation contraction coupling: the release of calcium and cross bridge formation sliding filament theory: contraction(when actual contraction occurs) What are the steps of a neuromuscular junction/synaptic transmission? - ANSWER✔✔-arrival of

action potential

  • opening of voltage-gated calcium channel
  • entry of calcium
  • exocytosis of neurotransmitter
  • diffusion of the neurotransmitter across the neuromuscular junction
  • binding of the neurotransmitter to the receptors on the postsynaptic membrane What are the functions of the immune cells? - ANSWER✔✔-fights off infection
  • protects us against cancers and damaged cells How does the immune system distinguish "self" from "non-self"? - ANSWER✔✔it uses antigens, molecules that are specific to that cell, and recognizes that it is part of self What is part of the immune system, besides WBCs? - ANSWER✔✔-cytokines: chemicals released by the WBCs
  • lymphoid tissue What are the primary and second organs of the immune system and their function? - ANSWER✔✔Primary organs: red bone marrow, thymus
  • function: production and maturation Secondary organs: lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, GALT(gut associated lymphoid tissue)
  • function: maintain mature WBCs that are ready to attack

What are cytokines? - ANSWER✔✔chemicals released by the WBCs that affect growth and activity of other WBCs What is the function of WBCs? - ANSWER✔✔to defend us against microbes and diseases due to abnormal cells What are the characteristics of basophils? - ANSWER✔✔rare, blue-colored granules that contain histamine and heparin, in charge of allergic reactions and protects against parasites What are the characteristics of eosinophils? - ANSWER✔✔blue-colored granules, in charge of allergic reactions and protects against parasites, their chemicals are toxic to other cells What are the characteristics of neutrophils? - ANSWER✔✔non-stained granules, the most abundant leukocyte, the first to combat infection, protect against bacteria What are the characteristics of monocytes and macrophages? - ANSWER✔✔monocyte: found in blood, and once it enters a tissue, it becomes an "antigen-presenting cell" macrophage: a phagocyte that ingests foreign pathogens What are the characteristics of a dendritic cell and lymphocytes? - ANSWER✔✔dendritic cell: found in tissues and a type of "antigen-presenting cell" lymphocytes: 3 types(T cells, B cells, NK cells) What are the characteristics of a natural killer cell? - ANSWER✔✔destroys cancer and virus cells, part of the innate immune systeWhat are the 2 types of respiration? - ANSWER✔✔internal respiration and external respiration In which direction does air flow due to pressure differences? - ANSWER✔✔from a high area to a low

area What is internal respiration? - ANSWER✔✔Gas exchange that occurs between the aleveoli and RBCs, and between the RBCs and tissue What is external respiration? - ANSWER✔✔air movement between the lungs and the atmosphere What is inhalation? - ANSWER✔✔when air moves from the atmosphere into the lungs What is exhalation? - ANSWER✔✔when air moves from the lungs into the atmosphere What is Boyle's Law? - ANSWER✔✔that pressure and volume are inversely proportional What is the atmospheric pressure at sea level? - ANSWER✔✔760 mmHg What is intrapulmonary pressure? - ANSWER✔✔pressure inside the lungs What is intrapulmonary volume? - ANSWER✔✔volume inside the lungs What is the atmospheric pressure and intrapulmonary pressure when you are at rest?(neither inhaling or exhaling) - ANSWER✔✔760mmHg What is the lung volume during rest? - ANSWER✔✔400ml air For inspiration, is the intrapulmonary pressure higher or lower than the atmospheric pressure? - ANSWER✔✔lower What are the steps of inspiration? - ANSWER✔✔-blood O2 levels are low, while CO2 is high

  • chemoreceptors get stimulated
  • chemoreceptors stimulate medulla(respiratory center)
  • medulla stimulates the phrenic nerve
  • phrenic nerve stimulates the diaphragm and respiratory muscles
  • diaphragm and muscles move down and outward
  • negative pressure created inside the lungs
  • thoracic veins drain blood into the lungs
  • increase in intrapulmonary volume
  • decrease in intrapulmonary pressure by 4mmHg= 756mmHg
  • air enters lungs What are the 2 types of chemoreceptors and their functions? - ANSWER✔✔Central receptors
  • located near the medulla
  • detect hydrogen concentration in CSF and by detecting hydrogen, it can tell if CO2 has increased Peripheral receptors
  • found in carotid artery and aortic bodies
  • detects a decrease in O2 levels, and if decreased, it stimulates the medulla What are the steps of expiration? - ANSWER✔✔-inhalation caused the lungs to be filled with air
  • stimulates stretch receptors within the medulla
  • medulla inhibits the phrenic nerve
  • diaphragm and respiratory muscles no longer stimulated by phrenic nerve
  • diaphragm and muscles relax
  • diaphragm moves up and muscles move inward
  • lungs recoil properly
  • blood is pushed out of the lungs
  • decrease in intrapulmonary volume
  • increase in intrapulmonary pressure by 8mmHg= 764mmHg
  • air leaves lungs What are the parts of components capacity and their meaning? - ANSWER✔✔a- tidal volume(TV): a normal breath b- inspiratory reserve volume(IRV): the amount of air your can forcefully inhale after a normal inhale c- expiratory reserve volume(ERV): the amount of air you can forcefully exhale after a normal exhale d- vital capacity(VC): the amount of air that can be manipulated e- residual volume(RV): the amount of air always left in the lungs f-total lung capacity(TLC): the total amount of air your lungs can hold What is pH, its range, and the categories within its range? - ANSWER✔✔-the concentration of free hydrogen ions in a solution
  • 0 - 14
  • acidic: 0-7, neutral: 7-8, basic: 8- 14

The volume of blood pumped out of the heart from one ventricle during one contraction - ANSWER✔✔Stroke Volume (SV) The rapid depolarization phase of the action potentials of myocardial contractile cells is due to which ion(s)? - ANSWER✔✔Na+ only The volume of blood in the ventricle available to be pumped out of the heart during one contraction - ANSWER✔✔End- diastolic volume (EDV) The volume of blood left in the ventricle after it contracts - ANSWER✔✔End- systolic volume (ESV) The volume of blood ejected from each ventricle during a contraction - ANSWER✔✔Stroke volume (SV) What happens when calcium binds to troponin? - ANSWER✔✔Tropomyosin is pulled away from the myosin-binding site on actin. The driving force for blood flow is a(n) ________ gradient. - ANSWER✔✔pressure Which would NOT cause an increase in blood pressure? - ANSWER✔✔a decrease in cardiac output Match the name of the wave with the correlated event: ventricular depolarization - ANSWER✔✔QRS complex The function of transverse tubules is to - ANSWER✔✔rapidly conduct action potentials to the interior of the muscle fiber. Which is greater:

A) blood pressure when the peripheral vessels constrict B) blood pressure when the peripheral vessels dilate - ANSWER✔✔A) blood pressure when the peripheral vessels constrict The P wave of an ECG corresponds to - ANSWER✔✔depolarization of the atria The reflex that compliments a withdrawal reflex by making compensatory adjustments on the opposite side of the body receiving the stimulus is the - ANSWER✔✔crossed extensor reflex Your instructor announces a pop quiz. Which would you expect? - ANSWER✔✔Increased sympathetic signaling and increased cardiac output This protein is activated by the Ca2+-calmodulin complex to phosphorylate the myosin light chain protein. - ANSWER✔✔myosin light chain kinase In which situation would end- systolic volume (ESV) be the greatest? - ANSWER✔✔when parasympathetic stimulation of the heart is increased Striated muscles are so- called because of a repeating pattern of light and dark bands. One repeating unit of the banding pattern is called a - ANSWER✔✔Sarcomere The contraction cycle is initiated by the rise in _______ released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). - ANSWER✔✔Ca2+ The cardiac output is equal to the - ANSWER✔✔product of heart rate and stroke volume The importance of the plateau phase of the action potential of myocardial cells is in - ANSWER✔✔preventing tetanus

If cardiac output increases and resistance in arterioles does NOT change, what happens to arterial blood pressure? - ANSWER✔✔increases The action potential traveling along the t-tubule changes the conformation of the - ANSWER✔✔dihydropyridine (DHP) receptor (L- type calcium channel) Restoring lost fluid from the capillaries back to the circulatory system is one of the major functions of the ________ system. - ANSWER✔✔lymphatic An increase in plasma potassium levels is properly called - ANSWER✔✔hyperkalemia Chief cells secrete - ANSWER✔✔pepsinogen The hormone vasopressin - ANSWER✔✔stimulates kidneys to retain water The enzyme renin is responsible for the production of - ANSWER✔✔Angiotensin I A glomerulus is - ANSWER✔✔a "ball" of capillaries within Bowman's capsule Dehydration leads to ________ blood volume, ________ blood pressure, and ________ osmolarity. - ANSWER✔✔decreased, decreased, increased G cells of the stomach secrete - ANSWER✔✔gastrin Increased angiotensin II levels would result in increased - ANSWER✔✔a. blood volume b. retention of water c. blood pressure d. retention of sodium ions at the kidney

(All of the above) The Bowman's capsule and glomerulus make up the - ANSWER✔✔renal corpuscle Which ion is NOT directly regulated by the kidney? - ANSWER✔✔OH- Short reflexes of the digestive system are integrated in the __________ nervous system - ANSWER✔✔enteric movement from the glomerulus to the nephron lumen - ANSWER✔✔filtration Bile salts aid in the digestion of fats by ________ large fat droplets. - ANSWER✔✔emulsifying The hormone that directly controls water reabsorption by the kidneys is - ANSWER✔✔ADH vasopressin Bile is secreted from the _______ and stored in the ________. - ANSWER✔✔liver, gallbladder A patient had an opioid overdose causing respiratory depression. Which would you expect for kidney compensation? - ANSWER✔✔Increased hydrogen ion excretion and increased bicarbonate ion reabsorption. movement from the peritubular capillaries to the nephron lumen - ANSWER✔✔secretion Angiotensin II stimulates - ANSWER✔✔thirst, vasoconstriction, and release of aldosterone. Which is false about Angiotensin II? - ANSWER✔✔activates parasympathetic output Chyme is released from here - ANSWER✔✔stomach

In a normal kidney, which condition would increase glomerular filtration rate (GFR)? - ANSWER✔✔a decrease in concentration of the plasma proteins in the blood ACE converts - ANSWER✔✔angiotensin I to angiotensin II A patient has a tumor that secretes high levels of aldosterone. Which would you expect? - ANSWER✔✔Hypokalemia and increased potassium in urine An enzyme that will digest proteins into amino acids is - ANSWER✔✔carboxypeptidase Immunoglobulin present in breast milk - ANSWER✔✔IgA What is the third phase of the ovarian cycle called, and what occurs during this time? - ANSWER✔✔Luteal phase; transformation of a ruptured follicle into a corpus luteum The hormone mainly responsible for milk production is - ANSWER✔✔prolactin The role of the pituitary hormone FSH in males is to - ANSWER✔✔initiate sperm production in the testes What is the function of secondary lymphoid tissues? - ANSWER✔✔To allow mature immune cells to interact with pathogens Which hormone released from the hypothalamus regulates gonad function? - ANSWER✔✔Gonadotropin- releasing hormone What are the two primary lymphoid tissues? - ANSWER✔✔thymus and bone marrow Autoimmune diseases are an example of a(n) ________ response by the immune system - ANSWER✔✔incorrect

A genetic defect causes a fetus to not develop a thymus. Which mature cells would you predict to be low? - ANSWER✔✔T lymphocytes When an antigen fragment is bound to a MHC class I molecule to form a MHC- I - antigen complex, it can stimulate a - ANSWER✔✔cytotoxic T- cell How does a sperm manage to penetrate the corona radiata and the zona pellucida and fertilize an egg? - ANSWER✔✔Through an acrosomal reaction What is the outcome when a complement cascade is activated? - ANSWER✔✔Pores are formed in a pathogen membrane, causing it to lyse. A person's blood type is determined by the - ANSWER✔✔presence or absence of specific glycoprotein molecules on their cell membrane Which represents the body's first line of defense to a pathogen? - ANSWER✔✔stomach acid Which embryonic structure gives rise to the seminal vesicles and vas deferens during fetal differentiation into a male? - ANSWER✔✔Wolffian duct Opsonins function by - ANSWER✔✔marking or tagging pathogens so phagocytes can find and ingest them. The first phase of the ovarian cycle is the __________ phase. - ANSWER✔✔follicular In the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle, the ovary is - ANSWER✔✔maturing a follicle Immunoglobulins that attach to mast cells and are involved in allergic reactions are - ANSWER✔✔IgE A zygote with the genotype YO will - ANSWER✔✔die

The hormone mainly responsible for the milk let- down reflex is - ANSWER✔✔oxytocin When the immune system creates a response that is out of proportion to the threat it has been exposed to, the response is called an - ANSWER✔✔allergy or hypersensitivity reaction Stem cells that will form T lymphocytes mature in the - ANSWER✔✔thymus Testosterone is secreted by - ANSWER✔✔Leydig cells Where is the releasing hormone released from? - ANSWER✔✔Hypothalamus Where is the inhibiting hormone released from? - ANSWER✔✔Hypothalamus Where is the Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) released from? - ANSWER✔✔Pituitary gland (Anterior lobe) Where is the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) released from? - ANSWER✔✔Pituitary gland (Anterior Lobe) Where is the Follicle-Stimulating hormone released from? - ANSWER✔✔Pituitary Gland (Anterior lobe) Where is Luteinizing Hormone released from? - ANSWER✔✔Pituitary Gland (Anterior Lobe) Where is Prolactin released from? - ANSWER✔✔Pituitary Gland (Anterior Lobe) Where is the Growth Hormone released from? - ANSWER✔✔Pituitary Gland (Anterior Lobe) Where is Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) released from? - ANSWER✔✔Pituitary Gland (Posterior Lobe) Where is Oxytocin released from? - ANSWER✔✔Pituitary Gland (Posterior Lobe)

Where is Cortisol released from? - ANSWER✔✔Adrenal Gland (Cortex) Where is Aldosterone released from? - ANSWER✔✔Adrenal Gland (Cortex) Where is Epinephrine released from? - ANSWER✔✔Adrenal Gland (Medulla) What is one hormone the kidney releases? - ANSWER✔✔Renin What are the three hormones that the thyroid gland releases? - ANSWER✔✔- Thyroxine

  • Triiodothyronine
  • Calcitonin What hormone does the parathyroid gland release? - ANSWER✔✔Parathyroid hormone (PTH) What are the three hormones that the pancreas release? - ANSWER✔✔- glucagon
  • insulin
  • somatostatin What are the two main endocrine glands that regulates the rest of the endocrine system? - ANSWER✔✔- Hypothalamus
  • Pituitary Gland What connects the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary gland? - ANSWER✔✔Infundibulum/Stak What connects the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary gland? - ANSWER✔✔blood vessels What are the specialized cells that are in the hypothalamus/posterior pituitary glands called? -

ANSWER✔✔neuroendocrine cells what are the function of neuroendocrine cells? - ANSWER✔✔Release/secrete hormones What are the two types of nuclei cells in the hypothalamus/posterior pituitary? - ANSWER✔✔- supraoptic

  • Paraventricular where it ADH produced and secreted? - ANSWER✔✔the hypothalamus produces antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and the posterior pituitary secretes it when it is ready where is oxytocin produced and released? - ANSWER✔✔the hypothalamus produces oxytocin and the posterior pituitary secretes it when it ready What is antidiuretic hormone (ADH)? - ANSWER✔✔It inhibits you from urinating (holding onto water) what is one signal to cause for ADH to be released? - ANSWER✔✔Increase in solute concentration (osmolality)/dehydration what is another way for ADH to be released? - ANSWER✔✔Decrease in blood pressure what does the posterior pituitary gland do when you are dehydrated or when your blood pressure decreases? - ANSWER✔✔the posterior pituitary releases ADH What happens when ADH is released? - ANSWER✔✔it travels to the collecting ducts in the kidneys. what is the function of ADH once it reaches the collecting ducts/kidneys? - ANSWER✔✔Inserts water channels and causes water absorption