Physical, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Development in Toddlerhood and Early Childhood, Exams of Advanced Education

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HDFS EXAM 1 QUESTIONS AND

ANSWERS

Describe how the infant's body changes in the first year, and explain the two basic principles of physical growth - Answer- the body weight triples and they grow an inch per month in height.

1. Cephalocaudal is growth that begins at the top.
2. Proximodistal is the growth that begins in the middle. Identify the different parts of the brain and describe how the brain changes in the first few years of life. - Answer- The brain is separated into two hemispheres and they are connected by the corpus callosum.
3. Frontal Lobe:planning for the future, making decisions.
4. Parietal lobe: processes bodily sensations
5. Occipital lobe: processes visual information
6. Temporal lobe: processes auditory information, including language. 4.3 Describe how infant sleep changes in the course of the first year and evaluate the risk factors for SIDS,including the research evidence regarding cosleeping. - Answer- Sleep needs decline during the first year. SIDS is most common at 2-4 months. Sleeping on the back reduces the risk of SIDS. Sleeping alongside the mother on a firm surface greatly reduces the risk. 4.4 Describe how infants' nutritional needs change during the first year of life and identify the reasons for and consequences of malnutrition in infancy. - Answer- The best way to obtain good high fat nutrition is through breast feeding. The timing of when solid foods are introduced to the infant varies among cultures. Malnutrition in infancy is due to the mothers being unable or unwilling to breastfeed their babies. List the major causes and preventive methods of infant mortality and describe some cultural approaches to protecting infants. - Answer- Malnutrition is a cause of infant mortality but diarrhea is the most common. It can be cured by oral rehydration therapy, but no access to clean water makes this treatment unavailable in some parts of the world. 4.6 Describe the major changes during infancy in gross and fine motor development. - Answer- rolling over, crawling, standing, grasping, reaching.

4.7 Describe when and how infants develop depth perception and intermodal perception. - Answer- Around 3 months, infants have increased adeptness at binocular vision and this enables them to develop depth perception during the first year. During the first year they also become better at intermodal perception and coordinating their senses. 4.8 Describe the meaning of maturation, schemes, assimilation, and accommodation. - Answer- Maturation is the biologically-based program of development. The child's construction of reality takes place through the use of schemes, which are cognitive structures for processing, organizing, and interpreting information. The two processes used in the use of schemes are assimilation and accommodation. Describe the first four sensorimotor substages and explain how object permanence develops over the course of the first year - Answer- 1. Based on neonatal reflexes 2.Based on purposeful behavior 3.Entails the repetition of movements that first occurred by chance. 4.based on intentional, goal-directed behavior. Object permanence has begun to develop by the end of infancy until the end of the second year. 4.10 Summarize the major critiques of Piaget's sensorimotor theory. - Answer- Some people say the theory underestimates infants cognitive abilities. People also say his research is cultural because almost all of his research has been done in the west. 4.11 Describe the elements of the information processing model of cognitive functioning. - Answer- it investigates the process of cognitive functioning that occur at all ages. The focus is on the components of cognitive functioning, especially attention and memory. 4.15 Evaluate the claim that educational media enhance infants' cognitive development.

• Answer- educational media products have no effect on infants cognitive development and may even be detrimental. 4.16 Describe the course of language development over the first year of life - Answer- Infants begin cooing at 2 months old. Begin to babble at 6 months. First words are spoken by the end of the first year, and they can understand 50 words by this time. 4.17 Describe how cultures vary in their stimulation of language development. - Answer- Many cultures use infant-directed speech and even in cultures that don't use it, children become adept users of language by the time they are a few years old. 4.18 Define infant temperament and describe its main dimensions. - Answer- it includes qualities such as attention span, activity level, and emotionality. Infants are classified as easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up. Other theorists rate temperament on the basis of dimensions rather than categories.

4.19 Explain how the idea of goodness-of-fit pertains to temperament on both a family level and a cultural level. - Answer- this means children develop best if there is a "good fit" between the temperament of the child and environmental demands. It varies among cultures. 4.20 Identify the primary emotions and describe how they develop during infancy. - Answer- original primary emotions were distress, interest, and pleasure develop into anger, fear, surprise, and happiness. Sadness tends to appear after infancy. 4.21 Describe infant's emotional perceptions and how their emotions become increasingly social over the first year. - Answer- infants are socially aware of others emotions from the first days of life, and respond with distress to the distress of others. Towards the end of the first year they draw emotional cues from how others respond to ambiguous situations a process called social referencing. 4.22 List the main features of infants' social worlds across cultures. - Answer- typically cared for by mothers, then by older siblings. They are held by and carried by other people often. Western infants have a smaller social group and have more time alone, but they also learn to function socially. 4.23 Compare and contrast the two major theories of infants' social development. - Answer- The key to healthy social development according to Erikson and Bowlby is a strong reliable attachment to a primary caregiver. The theories differ in their origins. Describe the typical changes in physical growth that take place in toddlerhood and explain the harmful effects of nutritional deficiencies on growth - Answer- toddlers physical growth continues at a pace that is slightly reduced from infancy. Toddlers in developing countries often suffer protein and micronutrient deficiencies that impede their physical and cognitive development. Describe the changes in brain development that take place during toddlerhood, and identify the two most common methods of measuring brain activity. - Answer- the brains synaptic density peaks at the end of toddlerhood, followed by many years of synaptic pruning. The two most common methods of measuring brain activity are the EEG and the fMRI. 5.4 Describe the advances in motor development that take place during toddlerhood. - Answer- In their gross motor development, toddlers learn to walk, run, climb, and kick a ball. Toddlers in traditional cultures are often restricted in their movements. Advances in fine motor development include holding a cup, and building a tower of blocks. In the third year with assistance, toddlers can brush their teeth. 5.6 Distinguish the weaning process early in infancy from weaning later in toddlerhood. - Answer- When weaning takes place in the second or third year of life, toddlers often resist.

5.7 Outline the cognitive achievements of toddlerhood in Piaget's theory. - Answer- According to Piaget, the ability for mental representations develops in the second half of the second year and is the basis for important aspects of later cognitive functioning, including problem solving and language. 5.8 Explain Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of cognitive development and contrast it with Piaget's theory. - Answer- Vgotsky emphasized the cultural basis of cognitive development in childhood. He proposed concepts like scaffolding, and the zone of proximal development to describe how children obtain cultural knowledge from adults. 5.9 Summarize the evidence for the biological and evolutionary bases of language. - Answer- the larynx is lower in the throat than it is in other primates, making spoken language possible. Humans also have areas in the brain specifically devoted to language functions. Anatomically the capacity for language appears to have first developed in early hominids 2 million years ago. 5.10 Describe the milestones in language development that take place during the toddler years. - Answer- at 18 months most toddlers speak about 50 words by 2 years most speak 200 words. By three years they can easily use the language of their culture in full sentences. 5.11 Identify how parents' stimulation of toddlers' language varies across cultures and evaluate how these variations relate to language development. - Answer- cultures vary widely in how much they encourage toddlers language development, from stimulating language use though direct interactions, to allowing toddlers to be present among conversing adults but otherwise not speaking to them much, to actually discouraging them from talking. 5.12 Describe how emotional development advances during toddlerhood and identify the impact of culture on these changes. - Answer- Sociomral emotions developing in toddlerhood include guilt, shame, embarrasment, envy, and pride. Toddlers in Western cultures have occasional tantrums perhaps because they have a more developed sense of intentionality than infants do and so are more likely to protest when thwarted. However, tantrums are outside the test when thwarted. However, tantrums are rare outside the West where cultures place less emphasis on self-expression. 5.13 Describe the changes in self-development that take place during toddlerhood. - Answer- ...The birth of the self in toddlerhood is indicated in the development of self- recognition and self-reflection. Toddlers begin to use personal pronouns such as "I" and "me" and to refer to themselves by name. Distinguish between sex and gender and summarize the evidence for the biological basis of gender development. - Answer- ...Sex is the biological status of being male or female. Gender refers to the cultural categories of male and female. Gender identity develops during toddlerhood. The biological basis of gender is indicated in evolutionary theory, ethological studies, and hormonal studies.

Describe the essential features of attachment theory and identify the four classifications of attachment. - Answer- ...In formulating attachment theory, Bowlby emphasized the evolutionary need for a person who would provide protection and care during the vulnerable early yeas of life. Ainsworth developed the Strange Situation to assess attachment quality, and concluded that it showed three distinct types of attachment 1. secure 2. insecure-avoidant 3. insecure-resistant. (disorganized-disoriented is a recent addition to the classifications) 5.16 Identify the key factors influencing the quality of toddlers' attachment to their mothers, and explain what effect attachment quality has on development. - Answer- ...the quality of attachment is based on how sensitive and responsive a mother is towards her child. Research indicates that some relation between attachment quality in toddlerhood and later development, but also shows that the internal working model established in toddlerhood can be modified by later experiences. Attachment quality is also influenced by infant temperament and b reciprocal or bidirectional influences between parent and child. Compare and contrast the typical patterns of father involvement with infants and toddlers in traditional cultures and developed countries. - Answer- ...Fathers in traditional cultures usually serve as family providers but are remote from toddlers emotional lives, although there are exceptions. Across cultures fathers tend to provide less physical and emotional care than mothers but this is changing as gender roles and work responsibilities change. 5.18 Describe relationships with siblings, peers, and friends during toddlerhood. - Answer- ...Across cultures, toddlers often react negatively to the birth of new siblings. When toddlers are the younger sibling, their older siblings enjoy playing with them more than when they were infants, but conflict will rise as toddlers become more capable of asserting their own desires. With friends toddler play takes a variety of forms including solitary play,parallel play, simple social play, and cooperative pretend play. 6.1 Describe the physical growth and change that takes place during early childhood. - Answer- ...The pace of physical development slows in early childhood. From ages 3 to 6 the typical American child grows 2-3 inches per year and gains 5-7 pounds. Average heights and weights in early childhood are considerably lower in developing countries, due to inadequate nutrition and higher likelihood of childhood diseases. Describe the changes in brain development that take place during early childhood and the aspects of brain development that explain "infantile" amnesia - Answer- ...the most notable changes in brain development during early childhood take place in the connections between neurons and myelination. Most people experience infantile amnesia and have limited memory for personal events that happened before the age of 5.

Identify the main nutritional deficiencies and the primary sources of injury, illness, and mortality during early childhood in developed and developing countries. - Answer- ...80% of children in developing countries experience nutritional deficiencies, but a surprisingly high percentage of children in developed countries experience them as well. Calcium is the most common nutritional deficiency in the U.S. whereas the two most common in developing countries are lack of protein and iron. Morality rates in early childhood are higher in developing countries mainly because of the greater prevalence of infectious diseases, but have declined in recent years. In developed countries the most common reason for injury or death in early childhood is motor vehicle accidents. Describe changes in gross and fine motor abilities during early childhood, and explain how these changes may have a cultural basis - Answer- ...from age 3 to 6 young children learn to make more hops in a row, hop on one foot, jump farther from a standing position, make a running jump, climb stairs, throw a ball farther and more accurately, become better at catching a ball, run faster, be able to stop or change direction, pick up small objects, draw something recognizable to others, write letters, put on and remove clothes, use scissors, use a knife to cut soft food. Describe the development of handedness and identify the consequences and cultural views of left- handedness. - Answer- ...about 10% of children are left-handed. Handedness is due primarily to direction in which fetuses lie in the womb although there is a small genetic influence. Being left handed is stigmatized in many cultures. 6.6 Explain the features of Piaget's preoperational stage of cognitive development. - Answer- ...Piaget viewed the preoperational stage of cognitive development as prone to a variety of errors including centration, lack of reversability, egocentrism, and animism. In this stage they make mistakes in tasks of conversation and classification. Research has shown Piaget underestimated the cognitive abilities of early childhood. 6.7 Explain what "theory of mind" is and the evidence for how it develops during early childhood. - Answer- ...theory of mind is the ability to understand thinking processes in ones self and others. By age 2 as they begin to use language more, children show increasing recognition that others have thoughts and emotions that can be contrasted with their own. By age 3 children know it is possible for them and others to imagine something that is not physically present, an understanding that becomes the basis of pretend play for many years to come. While 3 year olds are better at understanding that that others have feelings different than their own, they still find it hard to take others perspectives. 6.8 Identify the ways that cultural learning takes place in early childhood. - Answer- ...great deal of cultural learning takes place in early childhood through observing and working alongside parents or siblings, and in many cultures children

begin to make important work contributions to the family during this stage. In developed countries children also gain cultural learning in the preschool setting. Identify the features that are most important in preschool quality and explain how they reflect cultural values. - Answer- ...children benefit from attending preschool. Social effects of preschool are more mixed and in some ways negative. high quality pre school programs include education and training of teachers, class size and child teacher ration, age appropriate materials and activities, quality of teacher child interactions. 6.10 Describe early intervention programs and their outcomes. - Answer- ...early intervention programs have often resulted in a rise in IQ that fades after a few years. Some early interventions via preschool have had long-term positive effects on children's development, but the effects depend greatly on the quality of the program. 6.11 Explain how advances in vocabulary and grammar occur in early childhood. - Answer- ...Children's vocabularies expand immensely in early childhood, from about 1,000 words at age 3 to 2,500 words by age 6, and they readily grasp the grammatical rules of their culture with few errors by age 4. Describe how children learn pragmatics in early childhood and identify to what extent these social rules are culturally based. - Answer- ...Pragmatics guide us in knowing what to say and what not to say in a given social situation. By age 4 children are sensitive to the characteristics of their conversational partner and will adjust their speech accordingly. All cultures have their own rules for what kinds of speech can be used in what kinds of situations. 7.1 Identify the changes in physical and sensory development that take place during middle childhood. - Answer- ..during middle childhood physical growth continues at a steady pace. 2-3 inches and 5-7 pounds per year. Children lose all 20 primary teeth, ear health improves, but 1/4 of children become near sighted during middle childhood. Explain how motor development advances in middle childhood and how these advancements are related to participation in games and sports. - Answer- ...improves in middle childhood due to improved balance, increased strength, greater agility, and faster reaction time. As their gross motor development advances, children improve their performance in a wide range of games and sports and many of them participate in organized sports. Fine motor development reaches nearly an adult level at this age, and across cultures, advances are especially evident in drawing and writing. Describe the negative effects of both malnutrition and obesity on development, and identify the causes of obesity. - Answer- ...Studies have shown that better nourished children are more energetic less anxious show more positive emotion and score higher than

malnourished children on wide range of cognitive measures in middle childhood. Across countries, rates of overweight and obesity are highest in the most affluent regions (North American and Europe), and lowest in the poorest regions (Africa and Southeast Asia). 7.4 Explain why rates of illness and injury are relatively low in middle childhood. - Answer- ...middle childhood is the time of unusually high physical well-being due to strong immune system. 7.5 Explain the major cognitive advances that occur during Piaget's concrete operations stage. - Answer- ...According to Piaget, children progress from preoperational stage to the stage of concrete operations during middle childhood, as they learn to think more systematically and scientifically about how the world works and avoid cognitive errors. Cognitive advances during this stage include ability to understand conversation, improved classification skills, and the understanding of seriation. Describe how attention and memory change from early childhood to middle childhood, and identify the characteristics of children who have ADHD. - Answer- ...in middle childhood children become more capable of focusing their attention on relevant information and disregarding what is irrelevant. Children with especially notable difficulties in maintaining attention may be diagnosed with ADHD. 7.8 Identify the advances in vocabulary, grammar, and pragmatics during middle childhood. - Answer- ...language development continues apace with massive additions to childrens vocabularies once they learn to read. There is fourfold increase in childrens vocabularies between ages 6 and 10 or 11 and the grammar of childrens language use becomes more complex. Their understanding of pragmatics also grows substantially during middle childhood, which can be seen vividly in children's use and appreciation of humor. 7.9 Explain the consequences for cognitive development of growing up bilingual. - Answer- ...being bilingual is beneficial but can be difficult as you grow older. 7.10 Summarize the variations worldwide in school enrollment socialization practices, and academic achievement during middle childhood. - Answer- ...attending school is a relatively recent historical development in childrens lives, even today 18% of children in developing countries do not attend primary school. School influences childrens social development because it places children with their peers and away from adults. Describe the main features of emotional self-regulation and understanding in middle childhood and how other life stages compare - Answer- ...Emotionally, middle childhood is generally a time of exceptional stability and contentment as emotional self regulation becomes firmly established and emotional understanding advances. Increased involvement in

contexts outside the family, such as school and sports teams, requires higher levels of emotional self regulation. Explain how different ways of thinking about the self are rooted in cultural beliefs, and summarize how self-concept and self-esteem change in middle childhood - Answer- ...childrens self understanding becomes more complex in middle childhood and they engage in more social comparison once they enter school. Their overall self-concepts are based on their self-concepts in specific areas that are important to them, which for most children includes physical appearance. In discussing cultural differences in conceptions of the self scholars typically distinguish between the independent self promoted by individualistic cultures and the interdependent self promoted by collectivistic cultures. High self-esteem is encouraged in individualistic cultures but discouraged in collectivistic cultures. Describe how beliefs and behavior regarding gender change in middle childhood, including cultural variations. - Answer- Children's tasks and play become more gender-segregated in middle childhood, and their views of gender roles become more sharply defined. In traditional cultures boys and girls do separate kinds of work in middle childhood, but playing in gender-specific group takes place across cultures. Explain the distinctive features of family relations in middle childhood, and describe the consequences of parental divorce and remarriage - Answer- ...children become more independent during middle childhood as they and their parents move toward corregulation rather than parental dominance and control. Conflict with siblings peak at this age. Divorce has become increasingly common in developed countries, and children (especially boys) respond negatively to divorce, particularly when it includes high conflict between parents. Parents remarriage is also experienced negatively in middle childhood. Explain the main basis of friendships in middle childhood, and describe the four categories of peer social status and the dynamics between bullies and victims. - Answer- ...similarity is important as the basis of friendship in middle childhood as it is at other ages. Trust also becomes important in middle childhood friendships. Children's play becomes more complex and rule-based in this stage.Popularity and unpopularity become prominent in peer relations once children develop the capacity for seriation and spend a considerable part of their day in age graded schools. rejected children have the greatest problems in peer relations and the poorest long-term prospects for social development, mainly due to their aggressiveness. Bullying is a worldwide problem in middle childhood peer relations. Summarize the rates of daily TV-watching among children worldwide, and describe the positive

and negative effects of television, especially the hazards related to TV violence. - Answer- ...Childrens media use stays the same from early childhood to middle childhood, except for in time playing electronic games. A casual link between media violence and aggression in middle childhood has been established through field studies, longitudinal studies, and natural experiments. Prosocial TV content promotes qualities such as altruism and self-control.