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PORTAGE LEARNING A&P 2 102 ALL OF PORTAGE MODULES BIOD 152 COMPLETE A+ SOLUTION GUIDE 2024/2025
Typology: Exams
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Portage Learning BIOD 152 Portage Learning / A&P 2 102 All of portage modules BIOD 152
The nervous system receives and processes information and sends out signals to the muscles and glands to elicit an appropriate response. In this way, the nervous system integrates and controls the other systems of the body. In the human nervous system, the central nervous system (Figure below) includes the brain and the spinal cord (dorsal nerve cord), which lie in the midline of the body. The skull protects the brain and the vertebrae protect the spinal cord. The central nervous system can send signals or impulses to and receive impulses from the peripheral nervous system. The peripheral nervous system includes all nerves not in the brain or spinal cord which are the cranial
nerves that connect directly to the brain and the spinal nerves which project from either side of the spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system connects all parts of the body to the central nervous system and can be divided into a sensory or afferent division and a motor or efferent division. The peripheral nervous system receives impulses from the sensory organs via the afferent division and then relays signals or impulses from the central nervous system to muscles and glands via the motor or efferent division. The efferent division can be further divided into the somatic system and the autonomic system. The somatic system nerves control skeletal muscles, skin, and joints. The autonomic system nerves control the glands and smooth muscles of the internal organs and are not generally under conscious control and can be divided into two systems: the sympathetic system which activates and prepares the body for vigorous muscular activity, stress, and emergencies and the parasympathetic system which lowers activity, operates during normal situations, permits digestion, and conserves energy. Problem Set 1:
Neurons (Figure below) are nerve cells that vary in size and shape. They do not undergo mitosis (cell division), require enormous amounts of fuel, are able to survive just minutes without oxygen, and can last an entire human lifetime. Neurons all have three parts: the dendrites, the cell body, and the axon. The neuron cell body, which synthesizes all nerve cell products, consists of a large nucleus with surrounding cytoplasm containing the normal organelles. The dendrites are numerous short extensions that emanate from the cell body which receive information from other neurons conducting those nerve impulses toward the cell body. The single axon, on the other hand, conducts nerve impulses away from the cell body to its axon terminals where it is emitted across a synapse to the dendrite of another neuron. Axons can vary in length being very short or as long
as three feet, the length of the axon which extends from the bottom of the spine to the big toe. Axons are composed of cells like the cell body but lack rough endoplasmic reticulum, depending on the cell body for necessary proteins. The peripheral nerve axon is coated in short sections called Schwann cells which are mainly composed of a white fatty layer called the myelin sheath rolled around the axon which insulates the nerve fiber from others and increases the speed of nerve impulses. There are also unmyelinated fibers, which are common in the gray matter of the brain and spinal cord, in which the Schwann cells do not wrap around the axon but are just loosely associated with the axon. The Schwann cell insulating sections are not continuous, having gaps between them called Nodes of Ranvier. At these exposed nodes, the nerve impulse is forced to jump to the next node in a manner called salutatory conduction, greatly increasing the nerve impulse transmission along the axon. The cell body contains the nucleus and other organelles typically found in cells with the exception of centrioles (since it is not capable of mitosis). One of the main functions of the cell body is to manufacture neurotransmitters, which are chemicals stored in secretory vesicles at the end of axon terminals. When neurotransmitters are released by the axon terminal vesicles, they participate in the transmission of the nerve impulse from one neuron to another. Problem Set 2:
g. Node of Ranvier h. Axon terminal
A nerve consists of hundreds of thousands of axons (#3) wrapped together in a connective tissue. In the peripheral nervous system the cell bodies of neurons (#2) are grouped together in masses called ganglia which are part of a single nerve. The neurons are also accompanied by non-nerve "supporting" cells known collectively as neuroglial cells which include (as shown in the diagram below) ependymal cells (#1), oligodendrocytes (#4), astrocytes (#5) and microglial cells (#7). The functions of these supporting cells are as follows: ependymal cells (circulate cerebrospinal fluid and allow fluid exchange between brain, spinal cord and CSF), oligodendrocytes (insulation of central nervous system axons), astrocytes (control chemical environment of neurons) and microglial cells (protect CNS by scavenging dead cells and infectious microoganisms).
Neurons can be classified as to their structure and function. Structurally, neurons are classified according to the number of extension from their cell body, as multipolar, bipolar and unipolar neurons. Multipolar neurons, the most common type in humans found as motor neurons or interneurons within the CNS, have three or more extensions, one axon and many dendrites. Bipolar neurons, found as receptors cells in the visual and olfactory systems, have two extensions, one axon and one dendrite. Unipolar neurons, found as sensory neurons in the peripheral nervous system, have one extension which branches into two, one central process running to the CNS and another peripheral process running to the sensory receptor. Functionally, neurons are classified as sensory or afferent neurons, motor or efferent neurons and association or interneurons. Most sensory neurons are unipolar and carry impulses from receptors in the skin or internal organs toward the CNS. Most motor neurons are multipolar and carry impulses from the central nervous system to muscle fibers or glands. Interneurons are usually multipolar and found within the central nervous system only. They transmit impulses between sensory and motors neurons conveying messages between various parts of the central nervous system, such as from one side of the brain or spinal cord to the other, or from the brain to the spinal cord, and vice versa. Problem Set 3:
Neurons are specialized to conduct electric impulses called action potentials. The nerve impulse is an electrochemical charge moving along an axon created by the movement of unequally distributed ions on either side of an axon’s plasma membrane. At rest the plasma membrane is said to be polarized, meaning that one side has a different charge than the other side. When the axon is not conducting an impulse, this difference in electrical charge is called resting potential and is equal to about -70mV (millivolts). This means that the charge on the inside of the axon's cell membrane is 70 millivolts less than the outside of the membrane. This is maintained by a sodium-potassium pump which uses active transport to carry ions across the plasma membrane. The pump works by using an integral carrier protein that, for every three Na+ ions that are pumped out, two K+ ions are pumped in. The pump must keep in constant operation, because the Na+ and K+ ions will naturally diffuse back to where they originated. Because the plasma membrane is more permeable to K+ diffusing outward and because more Na+ ions are being pumped outward than K+ pumped inward, a relative positive charge develops and is maintained on the outside of the membrane. If the axon is stimulated to conduct a nerve impulse, there is a rapid change in the polarity. This change in polarity is called the action potential. First, the membrane potential becomes more positive (called depolarization), indicating that the inside of the membrane is now more positive than the outside. Then the potential returns to normal (called re-polarization), indicating that the inside of the axon is negative again. The action potential is due to special protein-lined channels in the membrane, which can open to allow either sodium or potassium ions to pass through. These channels have gates, called sodium
gates and potassium gates. During the resting phase both sodium and potassium gates are closed. The sodium gates open and sodium rushes into the axon during the depolarization phase of the action potential. Voltage travels to zero and then on up to +40mV. Once this phase is complete, re-polarization occurs. The sodium gates close and potassium gates open allowing potassium to rush out of the axon. This returns a negative voltage to the inside of the axon but these gates are slow to close and there is generally an afterpolarization undershoot of the potential. These channels and their gates are voltage activated, as proteins respond to changes in voltage with changes in shape. The action potential travels along the length of an axon like a wave. It is self-propagating because the ion channels are prompted to open whenever the membrane potential decreases (depolarizes) in an adjacent area. An action potential is an all-or-nothing response either occurring or not. Since no variation exists in the strength of a single impulse, we distinguish the difference in intensity of a sensation (minor pain/major pain) by the number of neurons stimulated and the frequency with which they are activated. An impulse passing from one vertebrate nerve cell to another always moves in only one direction and there is a very short delay in transmission of the nerve impulse from one neuron to another. Neurons do not touch. There is a minute fluid-filled space, called a synapse, between the axon terminal of the sending (presynaptic) neuron and the dendrite of the receiving (postsynaptic) neuron.
The transmission of nerve impulses is electrochemical in nature as chemicals called neurotransmitters allow the signal to jump the synaptic gap. When a nerve impulse reaches the end of an axon, voltage-gated calcium channels open. As Ca+2 rushes in, it causes vesicles containing the neurotransmitter to fuse with the plasma membrane and release the neurotransmitter into the synapse. When the neurotransmitter released binds with a receptor on the next neuron, Na+ channels in the receiving dendrites open. Depolarization occurs and the impulse is carried. Acetylcholine and norepinephrine are well-known neurotransmitters, active in both the peripheral nervous system and the central nervous system. Once a neurotransmitter has been released into a synapse, it has only a short time to act. Some synapses contain enzymes that rapidly inactivate the neurotransmitter. For example, the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, or simply cholinesterase, breaks down acetylcholine. In other synapses, the synaptic ending rapidly absorbs the neurotransmitter, possibly for repacking in synaptic vesicles or for chemical breakdown. The short existence of neurotransmitters in the synapse prevents continuous stimulation (or inhibition) of postsynaptic membranes. Problem Set 4:
The difference in intensity of a sensation is due to the number of neurons stimulated and the frequency with which they are activated.
The peripheral nervous system lies outside the central nervous system. The peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves, which are part of either the somatic system or the autonomic system. The somatic system contains nerves that control skeletal muscles, skin, and joints. The autonomic system contains nerves that control the smooth muscles of the internal organs and the glands. Humans have twelve pairs of cranial nerves attached to the brain. Cranial nerves are either sensory nerves (having long dendrites of sensory neurons only), motor nerves (having long axons of motor neurons only), or mixed nerves (having both long dendrites and long axons). With the exception of the vagus nerve, all cranial nerves control the head, neck, and face. The vagus nerve controls the internal organs.
The first cranial nerve is the olfactory. It is a sensory nerve responsible for the sense of smell. The second cranial nerve is the optic. It is a sensory nerve responsible for the sense of sight. The third cranial nerve is the oculomotor. It is a motor nerve responsible for eye movement. The fourth cranial nerve is the trochlear. It is a motor nerve also responsible for eye movement. The fifth cranial nerve is the trigeminal. It is a motor and sensory nerve. It is responsible for chewing or mastication and sensation of the face, nose, and mouth. The sixth cranial nerve is the abducens. It is a motor nerve responsible for eye movement. The seventh nerve is the facial. It is a motor and sensory nerve. It is responsible for facial expressions and sensation of the tongue. The eighth cranial nerve is the vestibulocochlear. It is a sensory nerve responsible for hearing and balance. The ninth cranial nerve is the glossopharyngeal. It is a motor and sensory nerve. It is responsible for swallowing and taste. The tenth cranial nerve is the vagus. It is a motor and sensory nerve. It is responsible for digestion, regulation of heart rate, and sensation of the digestive tract. The eleventh nerve is the accessory. It is a motor nerve and is responsible for the rotation of the head and shrugging of the shoulders. The twelfth cranial nerve is the hypoglossal. It is a motor nerve that is responsible for tongue movements. Humans have thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves. There are eight pairs of cervical (cranial) nerves, twelve pairs of thoracic nerves, five pairs of lumbar nerves, five pairs of sacral nerves, and one
pair of coccygeal nerves. Each spinal nerve emerges from the spinal cord by two short branches, or roots, which lie within the vertebral column. The dorsal root contains the axons of afferent sensory neurons, which conduct impulses to the cord. The ventral root contains the axons of efferent motor neurons, which conduct impulses away from the cord. These two roots join just before a spinal nerve leaves the vertebral column. Therefore, all spinal nerves are mixed nerves that take impulses to and from the spinal cord. Spinal nerves project from the spinal cord, which is a part of the central nervous system. The spinal cord is a thick, whitish nerve cord that extends longitudinally down the back, where it is protected by the vertebrae. The cord contains a tiny central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid, gray matter consisting of cell bodies and short fibers, and white matter consisting of myelinated fibers. Almost immediately after immerging from the vertebral column, a spinal nerve divides into branches called the dorsal ramus and ventral ramus. The smaller dorsal ramus contains nerves that serve the dorsal portions of the trunk carrying visceral motor, somatic motor, and sensory information to and from the skin and muscles of the back. The larger ventral ramus contains nerves that serve the remaining ventral parts of the trunk and the upper and lower limbs carrying visceral motor, somatic motor, and sensory information to and from the body surface, structures in the body wall, and the limbs. Some ventral rami merge with adjacent ventral rami to form a nerve plexus, a network of interconnecting nerves. Nerves emerging from a plexus contain fibers from various spinal nerves, which are now carried together to some target location. Major plexuses include the cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral plexuses.
The phrenic nerve is the most important nerve of the cervical plexus and supplies both motor and sensory fibers to the diaphragm. Irritation of this nerve causes hiccups and severing this nerve would cause paralysis of the diaphragm and require use of a ventilator (mechanical respiratory). The saying “three, four, five keeps the diaphragm alive” is an easy way to remember that the phrenic nerve arrives from the ventral rami of C 3 -C 5.
Five nerves that originate from the ventral rami of C 5 -T 1 issue from the Brachial plexus. The axillary nerve supplies three muscles: the deltoid (a muscle of the shoulder), the teres minor (one of the rotator cuff muscles) and the long head of the triceps brachii (an elbow extensor). The axillary nerve also carries sensory information from the shoulder joint. The radial nerve supplies the triceps brachii muscle of the arm, as well as 12 muscles in the forearm and the associated joints and overlying skin. The median nerve supplies flexor muscles of the forearm and the skin of the first three and a half fingers. Compression of the median nerve in the carpal tunnel causes carpal tunnel syndrome or decreased sensation in the first three and a half fingers. The musculocutaneous nerve supplies the flexor muscles of the arm. The ulnar nerve supplies part of the flexor muscles of the forearm, wrist, and hand as well as the skin of half the ring finger and pinky finger. If the ulnar nerve is damaged it results in a condition known as claw hand, the inability to open the fourth and fifth fingers.
The Lumbar plexus nerves arise from the ventral rami of L 1 -L 4 and the femoral nerve is the major nerve that comes from this plexus. The femoral nerve supplies the hip flexors and knee extensors as well as sensation to the skin of the anterior thigh. Finally, the sacral plexus nerves arise from the ventral rami of L 4 -S 4 and the sciatic nerve is the major nerve that comes from this plexus. The sciatic nerve is the largest nerve in the human body. It supplies the inferior trunk and posterior surface of the thigh. Increased pressure on this nerve can result in the condition known as sciatica.
The somatic nervous system includes all nerves that serve the musculoskeletal system and the exterior sense organs, including the skin. Exterior sense organs (and skin) are receptors, which receive environmental stimuli and then initiate nerve impulses. Muscle fibers are effectors, which bring about a reaction to the stimulus.
Problem Set 5
4th Trochlear Motor Eye movement 5th Trigeminal (3 parts; opthalmic, Chewing or mastication and sensation of Both the face, nose and mouth maxillary, mandibular) 6th Abducens Motor Eye movement 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th Facial Auditory Glossopharyngeal Vagus Spinal Hypoglossal Both Facial expressions and sensation of the tongue Hearing and balance Sensory Swallowing and taste Both Digestion, heart rate and sensation of Both digestive tract Rotation of head and shrugging Motor shoulders Tongue movement Motor
that serve the dorsal portions of the trunk including the skin and muscles of the back. The larger ventral ramus contains nerves that serve the remaining ventral parts of the trunk and the upper and lower limbs.
The sciatic nerve supplies the inferior trunk and posterior surface of the thigh.
Reflexes are nearly instantaneous, automatic, involuntary motor responses to stimuli occurring inside or outside of the body. Reflexes may be subconscious as the regulation of blood sugar by the hormones, may be noticeable as shivering in response to a drop in body temperature; or may be obvious as touching a very hot object and immediately withdrawing your hand. Some reflexes, such as blinking the eye, involve the brainstem, but others, such as the flexor reflex involved when withdrawing your hand from the hot object involve only the nerves and the spinal cord in an action known as the reflex arc. To help an organism avoid injury, a reflex arc provides an immediate withdrawal from dangerous stimuli. While all sensory information does reach the brain for processing, the advantage of the reflex arc is production of a response by way of the spinal cord without the need to wait for processing by the brain. In this way a response occurs even before is consciously perceived. If you touch a very hot object, a receptor in the skin generates nerve impulses, which move along the dendrite of a sensory neuron toward the cell body and the central nervous system. The cell body of a sensory neuron is located in the dorsal-root ganglion just outside the spinal cord. From the cell body, the impulses travel along the axon of the sensory nerve. The impulses then pass to many interneurons, one of which connects with a motor neuron. The short dendrites and the cell body of the motor neuron lead to the axon, which leaves the cord by way of the ventral root of the spinal nerve. The nerve impulses travel along the axon to muscle fibers, which then contract so that you withdraw your hand from the hot object. This whole series of responses occurs because the sensory neuron stimulates several interneurons. They take impulses to all parts of the central nervous system, including the cerebrum, which in turn makes the person conscious of the stimulus and the reaction to it. A reflex arc refers to the neural pathway that a nerve impulse follows. The reflex arc typically consists of five components: The receptor at the end of a sensory neuron reacts to a stimulus. The sensory (afferent) neuron conducts nerve impulses along an afferent pathway towards the central nervous system (CNS). The integration center consists of one or more synapses in the CNS. A motor (efferent) neuron conducts a nerve impulse along an efferent pathway from the integration
center to an effector. An effector responds to the efferent impulses by contracting (a muscle) or secreting a product (a gland). Spinal reflexes occur much faster, not only because they involve fewer neurons, but also because the electrical signal does not have to travel to the brain and back. Spinal reflexes only travel to the spinal cord and back which is a much shorter distance. On average, humans have a reaction time of 0.25 seconds to a visual stimulus, 0.17 for an audio stimulus, and 0.15 seconds for a touch stimulus. Several examples of spinal reflexes are the flexor reflex (withdrawal of your hand from a very hot object) and the stretch reflex on an opposing muscle to prevent over- stretching of its antagonist. Stretch reflexes are a special type of muscle reflex which protect the muscle against increases in length which may tear or damage muscle fibers. Stretch reflexes are very important in maintaining upright posture in humans. Consider the patellar reflex, the knee-jerk flex used in physicians' offices to test the function of the muscles and nervous system. The primary purpose of the patellar reflex, which is the stretch reflex of the quadriceps femoris muscle in your thigh, is to prevent the over-stretching of the quadriceps. The patellar tendon attaches the quadriceps muscle to the tibia bone of the lower leg. The quadriceps is an extensor muscle raising the lower leg as it contracts thereby extending the angle of the knee joint. Tapping the patellar tendon stretches the quadriceps muscle and causes the sensory nerve receptor of the muscle to send a signal along the afferent neuron to the spinal cord. This causes the efferent neuron to return a signal to the quadriceps muscle to contract and lift the lower leg.
Problem Set 6:
The autonomic nervous system, a part of the peripheral nervous system, is made up of motor neurons that control the internal organs automatically and usually without need for conscious intervention. The sensory neurons that come from the internal organs allow us to feel internal pain. The cell bodies for these sensory neurons are in dorsal-root ganglia, along with the cell bodies of somatic sensory neurons. There are two divisions of the autonomic system: the