Portage Learning Module 2 PSYC140, Exams of Nursing

Download Portage Learning Module 2 PSYC140 and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity! Fill in the blanks. Delivery of the placenta occurs during Stage three of childbirth. Delivery of the baby occurs during Stage two of childbirth. Fine hair that covers the top portion of a baby in utero is known as lanugo . A doctor might recommend the use of a/an oxytocic drug during childbirth if there is a need to stimulate labor contractions. An epidural is an example of what type of drug? anesthesia Answer the following questions. Portage Learning Module 2 PSYC140 Exam - Answer Key Answer Key Answer the following questions. Short essay questions should be answered in complete sentences. For the following scenarios, identify whether the study’s design is cross-sectional or longitudinal. a. Martha’s children participated in a study from the time that they were in preschool until they reached middle school. longitudinal 1. Place the following prenatal events in order, from earliest to latest. Basic spinal cord begins to develop. Heartbeat can be heard with a stethoscope. Lanugo is nearly gone. (3 points) Basic spinal cord, heartbeat, lanugo disappears. 2. When does the Embryonic period begin? 2 weeks after conception 3. During which trimester is a heartbeat detectable using utrasound? first Answer Key These two overall study designs can also be combined to great advantage. There are also two types of approaches that must be chosen in addition to the research methods. For example, a researcher might choose a longitudinal experimental design or a cross-sectional survey design. A. Naturalistic Observation Naturalistic observation is a research method that involves observing a research subject outside of a research setting and in a more natural location. For example, Jean Piaget routinely observed his children at play at home. Today, researchers may conduct naturalistic observations in school settings. B. Case Study Similarly, case studies often involve direct observation of research subjects. But, case studies also involve interviewing the participant in great detail. As such, it is a very detailed examination of an individual. C. Survey/Interview Surveys can be administered anonymously, such as via the Internet or mail, or in person. If they are administered in person, they would take place in an interview format. Surveys ask questions about attitudes, opinions, and the frequencies of certain behaviors. D. Correlational Research In correlational research, the researcher is interested in knowing how two variables, or things, relate together. For example, do the number of friendships that people have increase with age? To answer this, researchers use statistics to indicate the degree and direction of the relationship. The degree of the relation tells you how strong the correlation is, while the direction indicates whether both variables increase together (that would be a positive relationship) or whether as one variable increases, the other decreases (a negative, or inverse, relationship). An example of a negative association or relationship would be as one gets older, one throws fewer temper tantrums. E. Experiments Many fascinating results have arisen from psychological experiments. An experiment is a research design in which the researcher tightly controls the setting, as well as participants and variables in the research study. In addition, the researcher manipulates a factor that is believed to have some influence. For instance, in a treatment study, treatment would be the manipulated variable. Treatment studies typically have more than one participant group, such as a group receiving psychotherapy, a group receiving drug treatment, and a control group. The manipulation can be observed in the researcher setting up this three-group situation and then randomly assigning participants to be in one of the groups. Due to these features, it is only an experimental study that can adequately discern whether the manipulated variable caused a change. No other study design allows such an observation to be made, since random assignment to groups and manipulation of an experimental variable are typically absent from other study designs. Biological Beginnings and Prenatal Development Now we are ready to begin directly discussing human development. From this point on, we are going to explore human development from conception through death. To do so, we will first explore current technology used to view prenatal development. Next, we consider the interactive nature between biological and environmental contributions to development (nature/nurture). Thirdly, we consider the stages of prenatal development. Finally, we discuss childbirth and post-birth. A. Prenatal Diagnostic Tests Prenatal diagnostic tests allow parents and health care professionals to discern whether a baby is developing normally. These tests include ultrasound, amniocentesis, and chorionic villus sampling. 1. Ultrasound Ultrasound (sonogram) directs high frequency sound waves into the mother’s abdomen. The echo from the sound waves is then used to create an image of the developing baby. Ultrasound can show the position of the baby, gender, gestational age, and some brain defects. Noninvasive and generally viewed to be safe, a general rule is to have fewer than five ultrasounds during pregnancy (having five or more may be associated with increased risk of low birth weight). Below is a 3-D ultrasound image taken at the gestational age of 20 weeks. https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/fetal-ultrasound/about/pac-20394149 2. Amniocentesis 2. Evocative Genotype-Environment Interaction Second, parents can provide the genetic predisposition for the child to then evoke certain reactions in others. For example, a very social child will affect others around her to behave in certain ways, which will then influence her own development. For example, this child may develop a large social group and be viewed favorably by teachers who value strong interpersonal skills. In short, our own behaviors may play a role in our development. This is known as an evocative genotype-environment interaction. 3. Active Genotype-Environment Interaction Third, parents may provide a genetic predisposition that results in the child actively seeking out environmental conditions that foster the development of certain qualities. For example, a musically gifted child single-mindedly pursue musical outlets regardless of whether others encourage him or her to do so. This is an example of an active genotype-environment interaction. Application to your own life: Consider one quality that you have and think about how this quality developed. How might both nature and nurture have contributed to its development? Is this an example of a passive, evocative, or active genotype- environment interaction? Biological Beginnings and Prenatal Development II C. Prenatal Development We now begin going sequentially through the lifespan, starting with conception. Before we begin, take this quick quiz to see what you know about prenatal development. Match the description to the correct age. Remember, the ages refer to time after conception. Arteries and veins of heart are complete a. 7-8 weeks Can respond to sound b. 8-9 weeks Thumb sucking can be observed c. 20 weeks lanug o Breathing motions can be observed d. 22-26 weeks If born prematurely, baby can survive e. 30 weeks Answers: Arteries and veins of the heart are complete by 7 to 8 weeks. Thumb sucking can be observed by 8 to 9 weeks. A fetus can respond to sound by 20 weeks. It is possible for the baby to survive outside the womb by 22 to 26 weeks. Breathing motions can be observed by 30 weeks. Now, there are three periods of prenatal development: germinal, embryonic, and fetal. The germinal period takes place during the first two weeks after conception, when the zygote is created and attaches to the uterine wall. During the embryonic period (2 to 8 weeks after conception), layers of cells are formed. These layers will develop into organs and support systems for cells. For instance, the inner layer of cells develops into the respiratory and digestive systems, while the outer layer becomes the nervous system and sensory systems. Finally, the fetal period begins two months after conception and lasts approximately seven months. Major growth and development takes place during this period. 1. Trimesters Most parents are more familiar with categorizing prenatal development in terms of trimesters of pregnancy, each lasting approximately three months. Major developmental changes in each of the trimesters are listed below. First Trimester Second Trimester Third Trimester Grows up to 3 in. Grows to about 14 in. Grows up to 19 in. Weighs about 1 oz. by the end Weighs about 1 lb. by the end Average weight 6-7 lb. at 38 weeks Begins to develop spinal cord, nervous system, gastrointestinal system, heart, lungs Skin is protected by vernix (milky substance) and (fine hairs) Lanugo is nearly gone Heart beat detectable at 8 weeks Heartbeat can be heard with stethoscop e Age of viability 22-26 weeks · Susceptibility. Qualities inherent in the mother and/or child may influence whether, or to what extent, a teratogen has an effect. These qualities may affect how substances are metabolized as well as how much of the substance is passed to the developing baby. Thus, teratogens are another good example of a genetic-environment interaction. Examples of teratogens and a sampling of possible effects are listed below. Type of Teratogen Possible Consequence Nicotine Miscarriage, preterm birth, low birth weight, learning difficulties, SIDS Alcohol Fetal alcohol syndrome, cognitive and emotional problems X-rays Gene mutation, possible deformity Herpes Miscarriage, low birth weight, intellectual disability Toxoplasmosis Eye and brain damage Malnutrition Nervous system damage, respiratory illness, poor health Stress Miscarriage, prematurity, low birth weight, respiratory illness, birth defects Advanced maternal age Chromosomal defects, miscarriage, infertility Additional problems may also occur with these teratogens, and other teratogens are also detrimental. You may want to read additional sources if you are interested in learning more. However, be cautious with Internet searches on teratogens, since many mothering sites showcase biased and unscientific information that may result in creating another teratogen for the mother: stress! You may find it interesting that agents such as malnutrition, age, and stress are considered teratogens. However, the process by which they effect development are nonetheless biological. For example, when a mother experiences severe stress during pregnancy, increased blood is sent to her brain, heart, and limbs while less is sent to her uterus and the baby. In addition, stress hormones do cross the placenta and may increase fetal heart rate and otherwise alter the baby’s functioning. You may also notice that many teratogens may affect a child’s cognitive development (memory, attention, intelligence). This is because the baby’s brain is most vulnerable after organogenesis and throughout pregnancy because it is under continual development. Although this module has primarily emphasized teratogens that affect the mother and baby, an increasing amount of evidence is showing that paternal (father’s) exposure to teratogens can also result in birth defects. These teratogens may cause abnormalities in sperm that are then introduced to the baby at conception. 1.Stages of Childbirth Stage I is early labor & active labor. As the longest stage, it begins at the onset of true labor and ends when the cervix is completely dilated. Early labor typically takes 8 to 12 hours itself, while active labor often takes 3 to 5 hours. Contractions in early labor often last for about 30 to 45 seconds, with 5 to 30 minutes of rest in between. Contractions start out mild and irregular, but then progress. Sometimes a woman’s water breaks in this stage (this is an amniotic sac rupture), and sometimes it does not. During active labor, contractions last about 45 to 60 seconds with 3 to 5 minutes of rest in between. Stage II is delivery of the baby, and it begins after the cervix is dilated completely (10 cm) and ends after the baby’s delivery. This stage may last anywhere from 20 minutes to 2 hours. This is when a strong urge to push occurs, accompanied by a strong sense of pressure at the rectum. The baby’s head will eventually crown, or become visible. When this happens, it is important to let the health care provider coach how and when to push. Stage III is the delivery of the placenta (afterbirth), which typically takes 5 to 10 minutes. Contractions start up again in preparation for this. The placenta begins to separate from the uterine wall so that it can be delivered. The mother may experience shaking and shivering after the placental delivery, and this is normal. 2.Strategies of Childbirth Numerous childbirth strategies exist, and parents can choose various methods of delivery. For example, one important decision includes whether to use drugs during delivery. Three different types of drugs are typically used: analgesics, anesthesia, and oxytocics. Analgesics relieve pain and include narcotics, barbiturates, and tranquilizers. Anesthesia blocks the sensation of pain in a certain area of the body. General anesthesia may also block consciousness; although today, most normal deliveries trend away from general anesthesia and instead use epidural anesthesia, which is a regional block. Oxytocics are synthetic hormones that stimulate contractions for the purpose of inducing labor. Another important childbirth decision is whether to use prepared childbirth, also known as Lamaze (named after the founder of the childbirth strategy). Lamaze uses breathing techniques and education to help relieve pain and control fear. A final period of childbirth is the postpartum period, which is when the mother’s body heals and she emotionally adjusts to childbearing and childrearing. It is generally said to last approximately 6 weeks, which is when the body has completed biological adjustments to childbearing. Biological adjustments include involution, which is when the uterus returns to its normal size (dropping from 2 to 3 lb. post-delivery to 2 to 3 ounces). Breastfeeding actually helps contract the uterus at a faster rate. Numerous psychological adjustments also occur, such as coordinating the parents’ and baby’s schedules, readjusting social relationships, and bonding with the baby. 1. Compare and contrast longitudinal and cross-sectional studies. Longitudinal studies occur during long periods of time and include testing individuals at multiple assessment points showing development over time whereas cross-sectional studies will differentiate age groups at the same, current time making it more time efficient and less likely for participants to drop out of the study, but this study does not show development over time. 2. For the 5 research methods discussed in this module (naturalistic observation through experiments), write out the following: 1) What are the advantages of choosing this research design? 2) What are the disadvantages? 3) Summarize the main reason why the study design might be chosen. You will not find the precise answers to this question in the module, so you will be required to think critically about each research design and come up with a well-reasoned answer. Naturalistic advantage is a more natural location so the participant is relaxed, disadvantage is not being able to ask all of the questions and it is limited, main purpose of this type of observation is allowing the child to feel more comfortable when conducting the research and being watched. Case study pros include direct observation and cons of this are interviewing the participant in great, lengthy detail which can lead to false generalizations, but this case study is inexpensive and allows the opportunity to study unusual cases, disorders/diseases. Survey/interview advantages are anonymous and may contain large quantities with wide ranges of questions where the disadvantages are biased results and the possibility of participants lying. Main purpose is to gain results about attitudes, opinions and frequency of specific behaviors. Correlational research pros are using statistics to show relationships of 2 variables, cons are using correlation to show causation incorrectly and use surveys, interviews, or naturalistic observations when comparing 2 controlled variables.