PSYC 302 FINAL EXAM ACTUAL EXAM 2024 | 2 DIFFERENT EXAMS | ALL QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS, Exams of Psychotherapy

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PSYC 302 FINAL EXAM ACTUAL EXAM

2024 | 2 DIFFERENT EXAMS | ALL

QUESTIONS AND CORRECT ANSWERS

(ALREADY GRADED A+) | LATEST

VERSION 2024

PSYC 302 FINAL EXAM (FIRST EXAM)

What does naive psychology past the first year look like? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- A sense of self

• joint attention
• Intersubjectivity What is joint attention? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------focusing of attention on an object by 2 separate individuals What is intersubjectivity? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------the mutual understanding that people share during communication What is theory of mind? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------an understanding of how mental processes such as intentions, desires and beliefs influence behaviour What is the false-belief problem -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------a cognitive task used in psychology to assess an individual's ability to

understand that someone else may hold a belief that contradicts actual facts or current information. What do nativists think of theory of mind? -----CORRECT ANSWER---------- ----that there exists a hypothesized brain mechanism devoted to understanding other human beings; autistic children support this hypothesis What to empiricists think of theory of mind -----CORRECT ANSWER--------- -----some say it is learned from experiences with situations, interactions with people, and growth of general information-processing skills is essential What is object substitution? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------a form of pretense in which an object is used as something other than itself (broom = horse) What is sociodramatic play? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------a sort of pretend play where kids enact dramas with other children

• i.e. doctor with sick child How do Nativists think infants understand causality? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------infants posses an innate causal module that allows them to understand causal relations How do empiricists think infants understand causality? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------arises from observations of events in environment and from causal effects of infants actions

Map the development of causal reasoning in infancy -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------By 6 months, develop understanding of physical causality By 2 years, can infer the causal impact of one variable based on information from another How do Nativists think infants develop spatial thinking? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------an innate module How do Empircists think infants develop spatial thinking? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------through learning mechanisms and experiences In terms of spatial thinking, what do Nativists and Empiricists agree on? ----

• CORRECT ANSWER--------------- early understandinf of spatial concepts (above, velow, left, right)
• self-locomotion stimualtes processing of spatial information
• certain parts of brain specizlied for spatial info
• geometric information (length, angles, direction) is important in spatial processing What is Piaget's egocentric spatial representation? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------his belief that infants can code spatial locations relative to one's own body

Is Piaget's egocentric spatial representation absolute? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------No, if hidden object is near a landmark, baby can find it How can children find objects with no landmarks/their position moved? ----- CORRECT ANSWER--------------self-locomotion; assembling puzzles (makes them better at spatial transformation tasks) What are the restrictions of infants using landmarks for spatial understanding? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- must only be one landmark

• hidden objects must be directly next to landmark Is spatial understanding influenced by culture? -----CORRECT ANSWER--- -----------Yes, depends on importance of spatial skills in specific cultures What are the two theories on the nature and emergence of emotion? ----- CORRECT ANSWER--------------Discrete Emotions Theory and the Functionalist Perspective Describe the Disrete Emotions Theory -----CORRECT ANSWER-------------- theory where emotions are innate and each emotion has a specific set of bodily/facial reactions
• universal, first published by Darwin Explain the Functionalsist Perspective -----CORRECT ANSWER-------------- theory taht basic function of emotions are to promote action toward achieving a goal

What are the six basic emotions -----CORRECT ANSWER-------------- happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, surprise Outline development of happiness -----CORRECT ANSWER-------------- 3 - 8 weeks, smiling in reaction to stimuli 3rd months, social smiles 5 months, laughing at something funny Outline the development of Fear -----CORRECT ANSWER-------------- 7 months, intial signs appear, can recognize in others 8 months; fear of strangers Explain separation anxiety -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- distress from separation from parent

• appears at 8 months, declines 15 months What is sensation -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------the process of basic information from the external world by receptors in the sense organs What is perception -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information about the objects, events and spatial layout of the world around us

How can you test infant's vision -----CORRECT ANSWER-------------- preferential-looking technique Habituation What is visual acuity -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------sharpness of vision What is contrast sensitivity? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------the ability to detect differences in light and dark areas Why are babies bad at contrast sensitivity? -----CORRECT ANSWER-------- ------immature cone cells

• but by 2 months, are developed to adult level What is visual scanning? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------Moving the eyes to focus attention on different locations on objects or in scenes. What is perceptual constancy? -----CORRECT ANSWER-------------- perception of objects with constant size,shape, size, etc. despite changes in lighting, distance, etc. What is object segregation -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------the ability to perceieve the boundaries between objects

What is common movement -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------when two segments always move together in same direction/speed causing baby to think it is one object What is some criticism of object permanence -----CORRECT ANSWER------ ---------infants reach for objects in dark so they know objects are there even if can not see

• violation of expectancy What is optical expansion -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------a depth cue for infants wherein an object blocks more of background, indicating object is nearing What is binocular disparity -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------the difference between the retinal image of an object in eaceh eye that results in two different signals sent to brain What is stereopsis? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------process of combining neural signals to result in depth perception; emerges at 4 months What is monocular depth cues? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------Depth cues perceieved by only one eye; 6-7 months What is auditory localization -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------the perception of the spatial location of a sound source

Do infants prefer infant-directed speech or sinigng? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------They prefer infant-directed singing How do infants start developing the touch sense -----CORRECT ANSWER- -------------through oral exploration; i.e. sucking on fingers and toes What do infants do at 4 months to further their touch sense? ----- CORRECT ANSWER--------------using hands/arms to touch thus developing mental maps of bodies What is perceptual narrowing? -----CORRECT ANSWER-------------- developmental changes in which experience fine-tunes the perceptual system What is intermodal perception? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------the combining of information from two or more sensory systems What is the McGurk effect? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------an example of auditory-visual intermodal perception Is motor reflexes dependant on culture? -----CORRECT ANSWER------------ --Yes

• i.e. countries where sitting independently is encouraged vs. discouraged

What is the impact of diapers on walking behaviours -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------when naked, infants displayed mature walking behaviour versus when wearing diapers What are affordances? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------the possibility that an action offers/that an object offers

• i.e. door handle gives possibility to open the door; smaller objects give possibility to pick them up How does reaching start off for infants? -----CORRECT ANSWER-------------
• initially limited to clumsy swings towards objects they see How can reaching benefit infants? -----CORRECT ANSWER-------------- more experience reaching objects, improves 3D object processing What are scale errors? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------young children's inappropriate use of an object due to their failure to consider information about the object's size What are grasp errors? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------when a child tries to pick up an object from a 2D representation (like a photo) What are media errors? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------When a child uses interactive technology to try and pass an object through a screen

What is habituation? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation What does habituation reveal about infant learning? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------the speed of habituation relates to information processing speed What is statistical learning? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------Detecting statistically predictable patterns in environment i.e. the regularity with which the sound of Mom's voice is followed by her face What is the Godilocks Effect for infant learning? -----CORRECT ANSWER-- ------------avoiding patterns in statistical learning that are too hard/esasy What is classical conditioning? -----CORRECT ANSWER-------------- Learning through association (i.e. infants meal through breast, so sucking motion at sight of breast) What is the unconditioned stimulus? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------A stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning (i.e. nipple in mouth)

What is unconditioned response? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------a reflexive response that is elicited by the unconditional stimulus (i.e. sucking motion) What is the conditioned response -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------the orginally reflexive response that comes to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus (i.e. anticipatory sucking movement) What is Operant conditioning? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------learning relation between one's own behaviour and the consequenes Why do infants divide objects into categories? -----CORRECT ANSWER---- ----------allows them to make inferences about unknown objects What are the three categories that infants divide objects into? ----- CORRECT ANSWER--------------inanimate objects, people, animals What does object categorization of objects look like in infancy? ----- CORRECT ANSWER--------------at 4 months can distinguish cats and dogs; less than 18 months rely on presence of legs to categorize as animals or wheels to categorize as vehicles What is the key dimension that infants use to categorize objects ----- CORRECT ANSWER--------------overall shape

What are the three levels of category hierachies beyond infancy? ----- CORRECT ANSWER--------------the superordinate level; the subordinate level; the basic level What is the superordinate level? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------the most general level

• i.e. animal in an animal/dog/poodle example What is the subordinate level? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------the most specific level
• i.e. poodle in animal/dog/poodle What is the basic level -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------the middle level, and often the first level learned, within a category hierarchy, such as "dog" in the animal/dog/poodle example How do infants form superordinate and subordinate levels? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- parents use basic levels ot explain specific things (i.e. furniture includes chairs and tables)
• statements that specify relations (i.e. belugas are a kind of whale); helps with subordiante to basic level What understanding of causal relations do infants have in first months? ----- CORRECT ANSWER--------------gravity, inertia

Is there an interplay between causal relations and forming object categories? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------Yes! understanding causal relations helps learning/memory

• i.e. can better classify an animal if given a story that explains why they have the features What is naive psychology? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------a commonsense level of understanding of other people and oneself What are three concepts that help us understand human behaviour? ----- CORRECT ANSWER--------------Desire, beliefs, actions Three properties of Naive Psychology? -----CORRECT ANSWER-------------
• 1. invisible mental states

2. linked to one another in cause-effect relations
3. develop early in life What do nativist belive for infancy naive psychology? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------children are born with basic understanding of human psychology What do Empiricists believe for infancy naive psychology? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------experience and general info-processing capabilities lead to understanding of others/self

Map the emergence of self-consciousness in infancy -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- infants born with self consciousness (if one touches infant face, they turn; if touch own face, wont turn)

• 4 months, understanding of what they can(t) do (only reaches for objects in range)
• by 18-24 months, deeper understanding (cleans face if dirty in mirror) Describe infants understanding of other people? -----CORRECT ANSWER- -------------- Know their actions are goal-oriented
• have a deep interest in people-watching
• differentiate between people (proven by their preference for certain people) Outline development of Anger -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- adaptive emotion
• more likely to happen with person than object
• often combined with other emotion 1st bday; clear + frequent expression of anger 18 - 24 weeks, peak of anger (Terrible twos); declines at 3- 6 Explain Sadness in infancy -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- often paired with anger
• displayed when separated from parentes
• adaptive emotion (draws in attention) When does surprise appear for infants -----CORRECT ANSWER-------------- 6 months
• brief expressions, often transform to anotehr emotion after

Explain Disgust in Infancy -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- evolutionary (helps avoid poison/bacteria)

• partially learned from parents/culture (think: eating bugs normal some places) Explain the Self-conscious emotions in infancy -----CORRECT ANSWER--- ------------ not innate (a sense of self needs to develop first)
• discontinuous growth Outline process of identifying others emotions -----CORRECT ANSWER---- ----------- 3 months; can identify happy, fear, surprise
• 7 months; can identify more expressions like fear, sad, interest
• 3 years; label emotions on pictures What is Social Referncing? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------usage of aprents faical expression to decide how to deal with novel situations What emotions are a homeless orphan more likely to detect? ----- CORRECT ANSWER--------------anger, less likely for sadness What is inability to detect emotions linked ti? -----CORRECT ANSWER------ --------mental health problems

Discuss the timeline of understanding real/false emotions -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- 1.5 years; recognize exaggeration

• 3 years; starts to understand some emotion expressions are false; might mask negative emotions (when opening a bad gift)
• 5 years; understanding of false emotin improves What are display rules -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------cultural expectations of emotions (how often to display, where, when to display) What is emotion regulation? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------a set of conscious and unconscious processes used to monitor and modulate emotional experiences and expressions What is co-regulation? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------when a caregiver provides comfort/distraction to help child reduce distress; helps develop emotional regulation Outline development of Emotion regulation -----CORRECT ANSWER-------- ------5 months; show signs of emotion regulation through self-comforting OR self-distraction 1 year; less self-comfort and more self-distraction Outline relation between emotion regulation to social competence ----- CORRECT ANSWER--------------- better emotion regulation = more liked by peers

• children who can't regulate emotions, more bullied
• well regulated children = better academics Explain the parent's role in emotional development. -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------acts as a model of when/how to express emotion What can expressions of positive emotions at home lead to for an infant? -- ---CORRECT ANSWER--------------better emotion expression, socially skilled, low agression, better understanding of emotions What can expressions of negeative emotions at home lead to for an infant? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------low levels of social competence, experience/express negative emotions What is the still-face paradigm? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------When a child becomes upset and withdrawn if their mother looks at them with a still face What is a parents' emoiton socialization of their children? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------the direct/indirect influence that parents have on their children's standards, values, ways of thinking; occurs through reponse/reaction to child's emotion Explain how dismissive or supportive reactions to children's emotions impact the child's emotions -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- if dismissive = less emotionally and socially competent

• if supportive = learn to regulate emotions, reduce problem behaviours What is emotion coaching? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------a parental style that teaches children how to understand their emotions and deal with them What is temperament? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------individual differences in emotion, activity level, and attention that are exhibited across contexts and that are present from infancy and thus thought to be genetically based What are the three groups of infants in regard to temperament? ----- CORRECT ANSWER--------------Easy babies (adjust readily to new situations, quickly establish daily routines, cheerful + easy to stay calm) Difficult babies (slow to adjust to new situations, react negatively to new stimuli, irregular daily routines) Slow to warm up Babies (difficult at first, but gradually easier) What are different ways one can measure temperament? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- Rothbart's 5 dimensions of temperament
• Physiological measures (heart rate, EEG)
• Parent reports What are Rothbart's 5 dimensions of temperament. -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------fear, distress, attention span, activity level, smiling

• stay stable over time + predict development (behaviour problems, social disorders/competence) What are the Pros and Cons of using Parent reports and Lab data to measure temperament? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------Parent reports
• parents have extensive knowledge of children behaviour BUT not objective, don't have wide comparison between babies Lab data - uninfluenced by bias BUT observations are in a limited setting Is it nature or nurture that determines temperament? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- Both! for nature, identical twins are more alike in emotion vs. fraternal twins; for nurture, teratogens impact behaviour AND behaviour of parents influence as well What is goodness of fit? - ----CORRECT ANSWER--------------the degree to which an infant's temperament is adaptable to his or her environment and vice versa What is differential susceptibility? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------a circumstance in which the same temperament characteristic that puts some children at high risk for negative outcomes when exposed to a harsh home environment also causes them to blossom when their home environment is positive
• i.e. impulsive children exhibit behaviour problems with harsh families but in positive families, less problems

Explain Harlow's study -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------Harlow wanted to know if there was more to attachment than just being fed from the parent.

• Harlow wanted to see if comfort was a factor
• He made mothers out of wire and another out of cloth
• Then he made the wire mother feed the monkeys to see if food mattered
• The monkeys always chose the cloth mother so it showed that comfort mattered What is Attachment Theory? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- developed by john bowlby infants use their primary caregiver as a secure base
• children are biologically predisposed to develope attachment with caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of survivial According to Bowbly, What is the purpose of attachment? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------enhances survival chances, emotional security, co- regulation What is the Internal Working Model of Attachment? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------The child develops a mental representation of the self, of attachment figures, and of relationships in general
• influenced by how dependable their caregiver was How does the Internal Working Model of Attachment impact romantic relationships? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------if caregiver is responsive = children expect relationships to be gratifying; as adults, look for satisfying relationships if caregiver is unresponsive = children develop a neg. pereception of relationships

What are two key factors of the Strange Situation procedure for measuring quality of attachment? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- extent to which infant uses caregiver as secure base

• how infant reacts to brief separation What are the three attachment styles of the Strange Situation? ----- CORRECT ANSWER--------------- secure attachment (pos. relationship with caregiver; upset at first but happy when return and quick recovery; caregiver IS secure base)
• Insecure resistant (clingy + stay close to caregiver; upset when caregiver leaves, not easily comforted + resists efforts to comfort)
• Insecure avoidant (indifferent towards caregiver, avoids them; can be comforted by a STRANGER or parent)
• Disorganized attachment (no consistent way of coping; confused/dazed behaviour) What is some criticism of the Strange Situation? -----CORRECT ANSWER- -------------requires many resources, should measure with dimensions not categories; NOT a strange situation anymore (may children in daycares) What are some of the sources of individual differences in attachment style? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- parenting and attachment styles (responsiveness, how affection with child)
• Parental sensitvity (expression of warmth, consistent responsiveness)
• Genetic influences (epigenetics)

• Cultural variations (fairly universal, but some cultures children less/more likely to stay physically close with mother) How to securely attached infants develop in life? -----CORRECT ANSWER- -------------- better social skills
• harmonious relationships with peers
• better at understanding others emotions
• less likely to develop mental.behavioural problems
• more likekly to have positive emotions
• less likely for abnormal behaviour
• better academics What is Self Concept? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------a system made up of one's thoghts and attitudes about oneself What does self concept look like in infancy? -----CORRECT ANSWER------- -------begins by differentiating themselves from environment (i.e. hands always present but not toys, so learn ever-present things are part of self) Map the timeline of development of self-concept -----CORRECT ANSWER- ------------- 2 - 4 months; basic understanding of self 8 months; further understandingl separation anxiety appears (meaning they recognize them and parent as separate) 1 year; joint attention appears 15 months; distinguish themselves from others by age and gender 18 - 20 months; recognize themself in mirror 2 years; recognize themselves in photo

What is the Rogue Test? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------Dot Placed on infant; if react to it when seeign in mirror they know who they are

• culturally, mixed results; independent cultures = explore dot; interdependent cultures = asusme dot placed there deliberately

PSYC 302 FINAL Exam (Second Exam)

goal directed action -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------the idea that human behaviour is presumed to be purposeful and intentional when do infants understand actions to be goal oriented? -----CORRECT ANSWER------- ------- 4 - 5 months (but not with non human agents) how do you test if infants understand goal oriented actions? -----CORRECT ANSWER--- ------------ show babies a consistent action

• violation of expectation with habituation
• habituate to arm or person performing same action (ex: grabbing ball from right side, and not choosing the bear)
• test: see a new goal or new path event where objects are reversed in space
• new goal: hand is reaching for object in the same place but it's a different object
• new path: hand is reaching for same object but it's in a different place
• new goal should be weirder and by 4.5 months, they look longer at the new goal event rather than the new path event why can we assume that infants understand that goal directed actions are for humans? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------when testing for goal oriented action, there's no difference between the tests when using a mechanical arm

what is a proposal to why we learn about goal oriented action? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------it seems to be related to own goal directed experience how can we test goal oriented action and the effect of experience? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- look at 3 month olds (no control over reaching, not a lot of goal directed action)

• gave one set of babies velcro mittens and gave them toys that had velcro
• babies with mittens were able to grasp things; let them experience goal oriented action
• results: at 3 months, they don't understand that action is goal directed; but those who had experience with the mittens, they seem to understand the actions as goal directed (looks longer at the new goal event) when can children understand collaborative action to be goal directed as well? ----- CORRECT ANSWER--------------14 months how do we test if children understand collaborative action to be goal directed? ----- CORRECT ANSWER--------------- babies will see either a collaborative (two girls with a box and a duck, one opens the box, the other gets the duck) or a non-collaborative (two people, duck already outside, only one person doing things)
• results: in collaborative condition, they looked more at the duck than the box reaching because they knew the duck was the goal, why get the box even though they were habituated to the experimenter grabbing the box what do researchers want to know when studying an infant's perception of social groups? - ----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- is it innate
• are there preferences
• what do the preferences mean
• what is the development of the preference ingroup -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- "us"
• those in a group that are similar to you in some characteristics outgroup -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- everyone who isn't in the ingroup

• those who are different from you ingroup or outgroup preference -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- both adults and children typically prefer their ingroup
• tend to more easily dislike people who are not like them
• argued that this is the roots of racism, sexism
• that's why it's something researchers are looking into if this is something innate babies and their preference of males or females -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- early studies showed that babies looked at females more than males
• preference for females early on was not necessarily there depending on the environment
• when infants have a primary caregiver that is a female they prefer female faces
• for those with male primary caregivers have a slight preference for males at what age do infants prefer race ingroups? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------- at 3 months, infants prefer to look at familiar race faces vs unfamilair race faces how was race ingroup preference tested in infants? -----CORRECT ANSWER--------------
• they were shown faces of different races
• they tested caucasian babies
• looked at how long they would look at one race is race preference in infants influence by experience? -----CORRECT ANSWER----------- ---- at birth there's no preference for same ace faces
• preference is present at 3 months describe the results of the study that found 3 month olds to have race preference ----- CORRECT ANSWER--------------- tested 3 groups of 3 month infants
• Israeli infants from Caucasian families (predominant race) showed preference for Caucasian faces
• Israeli infants from African families (minority race) showed no preference