PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024, Exams of Psychology

Download PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 and more Exams Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 Who originally said that change is the only constant? -answer-✔✔Roman philosopher Lucretius 2,000 years ago When was Darwins Origin of Species written? -answer-✔✔1859 Describe Darwin's theory of natural selection. -answer-✔✔There is, he argued, tremendous variation among the members of any given species. Some of these variations are well suited to current conditions; others are not. Individuals with favorable variations are more likely to survive and reproduce, so succeeding generations are more likely to show helpful characteristics. Thus, features that contribute to survival are "selected" by the environment, a process Darwin called natural selection. Was Darwin aware of the genetic basis for evolution by natural selection? -answer- ✔✔no Who was the first person to understand the role of genetics? -answer-✔✔Gregor Mendel (father of genetics) published his work in 1866. Although Darwin did not understand the genetic basis for evolution, he was aware that _____ (2 things) -answer-✔✔variation within a species was common selective breeding of farm animals with a specific variation often resulted in offspring with that characteristic. What did Dawkin's pebbly beach analogy illustrate about natural selection? - answer-✔✔pebbles arrange themselves based on the flow of water and density and size of the rocks. Intelligent direction isn't required. The environment "selects" desirable characteristics and spurns undesirable ones. PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 What are mutations? -answer-✔✔Abrupt changes in genes. What can cause a mutation? -answer-✔✔Can be caused by exposure to radiation and certain chemicals and perhaps by viral infections. In what case will mutation be passed on to the next generation? -answer-✔✔when mutations occur in genes of reproductive cells (sperm or ova) Can mutations occur in any cell of the body? -answer-✔✔yes Will offspring with mutated genes necessarily display the mutation? -answer- ✔✔no Are mutations always detrimental to survival? -answer-✔✔Many of these changes are simply of no consequence, one way or the other Occasionally can be useful to survival. (new horn mutation useful for defense) What is a reflex? -answer-✔✔A reflex is a relationship between a specific event and a simple response to that event. A reflex is a relationship between certain kinds of events. Give an example of a reflex. -answer-✔✔Food in the mouth elicits the salivary reflex, the flow of saliva that begins the process of digestion. What is reflex failure? When can it occur? -answer-✔✔Reflex failure is when a reflex fails to function properly. This can happen as a result of: -allergic reaction to medication -injury or disease. -excessive alcohol or other drugs that depress the central nervous system. Reflexes are highly ___________ -answer-✔✔stereotypic that is, they are remarkably consistent in form, frequency, strength, and time of appearance during development. PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 What is an operational definition -answer-✔✔For research purposes, behavior must be defined in terms of its measurement. Because the operation used to measure behavior defines it, this is called an operational definition. What is a stimulus? -answer-✔✔A stimulus is an event that can affect or is capable of affecting behavior. What are stimuli? -answer-✔✔Stimuli are physical events: An increase in temperature. Describe the measure of learning: reduction in errors -answer-✔✔A common way of measuring learning is to look for a reduction in errors. A rat can be said to have learned to run a maze to the extent that it goes from start to finish without taking a wrong turn. As training progresses, the rat will make fewer and fewer errors Describe the measure of learning: topography -answer-✔✔the form a behavior takes Topography may be used as a measure of learning in mirror tracing. The task is to trace a form while looking at its reflection in a mirror. It is harder than it sounds, and at first the pencil line meanders wildly. With practice, however, a person can trace the shape rather neatly. The change in topography is a measure of learning. Describe the measure of learning: intensity -answer-✔✔When a laboratory rat learns to press a lever, the resistance of the lever may be increased so that greater force is required to depress it. The increase in pressure exerted by the rat is a measure of learning Describe the measure of learning:speed -answer-✔✔A change in the speed with which a behavior is performed is another measure of learning. The rat that has learned to run a maze reaches the goal faster than an untrained rat Describe the measure of learning:latency -answer-✔✔the time that passes before a behavior occurs. PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 Describe the measure of learning: rate or frequency -answer-✔✔These terms refer to the number of occurrences per unit of time. A pigeon may peck a disk at the rate of, say, five to ten times a minute. The experimenter may then attempt to increase or decrease the rate of disk pecking. The resulting change in rate is a measure of learning Identify and explain the three major reasons for using animals in research on learning. -answer-✔✔Influence and control over heredity It is possible to control their learning history. Can control their environment. Possible to do research otherwise unethical on humans. What is the most common objection to using animals in research on learning? - answer-✔✔Chief objection is that animals are different from humans. Therefore one needs to be careful about generalizing information and research from animals to humans. No practical value. Intrinsically unethical. Animal rights. Naturan selection is usually ____ the times -answer-✔✔behind What were the psychic secretions that became a focus of Pavlov's work? -answer- ✔✔When he noticed that a dog salivated before getting food he called this a "psychic secretion" and assumed that these were caused by thoughts, memories, or wishes of the animal. Is the presentation of the two stimuli (i.e., the neutral stimulus and the unconditional stimulus) independent of the behavior of the animal in pavlovian conditioning? -answer-✔✔Yes What type of behavior is subject to Pavlovian conditioning? -answer-✔✔Reflex responses such as salivating, blinking an eye, sweating, or jumping in response to a loud noise. PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 How can response latency be used to measure Pavlovian conditioning? -answer- ✔✔If the dog begins salivating after the CS begins but before the presentation of the US, conditioning has occurred. In this case, the amount of learning can be measured in terms of the latency of the response—the interval between the onset of the CS and the first appearance of saliva. As the number of CS-US pairings increases, the response latency diminishes; the dog may begin salivating even before the tone has stopped sounding. Describe the use of test trials to measure Pavlovian conditioning. -answer-✔✔In some conditioning studies, the interval between CS onset and the appearance of the US is so short that using response latency as a measure of learning is very difficult. One way to test for conditioning in these situations is to use test trials This involves presenting the CS alone (i.e., without the US) every now and then, perhaps on every fifth trial. I Describe the method of measuring Pavlovian conditioning by means of intensity or amplitude of the CR. -answer-✔✔Another way to measure Pavlovian learning is to measure the intensity or strength (sometimes called amplitude) of the CR. Pavlov found that the first CRs were apt to be very weak—a drop or two of saliva. But with repeated trials, the saliva flow in response to the CS increased rapidly. The increase in the number of drops of saliva is a measure of learning. pseudoconditioning -answer-✔✔Pseudoconditioning is the tendency of a neutral stimulus to elicit a CR after a US has elicited a reflex response. trace conditioning -answer-✔✔the CS begins and ends before the US is presented. delayed conditioning -answer-✔✔the CS and US overlap. simultaneous conditioning -answer-✔✔the CS and US coincide exactly. backward conditioning -answer-✔✔the CS follows the US PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 Systematic desensitization -answer-✔✔a procedure in which a phobic person imagines a very weak form of the frightening CS while relaxed. In vivo desensitization -answer-✔✔similar to systematic desensitization except that real feared stimuli, rather than imagined stimuli, are presented. conditioned suppression -answer-✔✔A reduction in the rate of responding due to the noncontingent presentation of an aversive CS. Describe Pavlov's study in which an aversive stimulus was established as a CS - answer-✔✔Pavlov followed an electric shock with food. Incredibly, the dog soon salivated in response to the shock, just as it might have salivated in response to a bell. In other words, the shock became a CS for salivating. The word "reflex" is a synonym for _______ -answer-✔✔unconditional reflex CER (conditioned emotional response) -answer-✔✔emotional reactions, including not only fear but love, hate, and disgust, are largely learned, and they are learned mainly through Pavlovian conditioning. Watson called them conditioned emotional responses. Aversion Therapy -answer-✔✔One such treatment is called aversion therapy. A CS that elicits inappropriate sexual arousal is paired with a US that elicits an unpleasant response (often nausea Flooding -answer-✔✔Flooding is a method for treating phobias in which the feared stimuli (i.e., the fear conditioned stimuli) are presented in intense and maximal form without predicting any US. Flooding therapy is based on Pavlovian extinction: by presenting a CS in the absence of the US, fearful responding can undergo extinction. Covert Sensitization -answer-✔✔A variation of aversion therapy where the patient imagines the inappropriate behavior and then is presented with an extremely unpleasant odor. law of effect -answer-✔✔Behavior is a function of its consequences. PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 either positive or negative outcomes. operant learning -answer-✔✔Experiences whereby behavior is strengthened or weakened by its consequences became known as operant learning because the behavior operates on the environment. instrumental learning -answer-✔✔Another term for operant conditioning.The behavior is typically instrumental in producing important consequences, so this type of learning is also sometimes called instrumental learning. reinforcement -answer-✔✔In learning, reinforcement means an increase in the strength of behavior due to its consequence. Name the three essential features of reinforcement. -answer-✔✔a behavior must have a consequence. the behavior must increase in strength (e.g., occur more often) the increase in strength must be the result of the consequence. Positive -answer-✔✔stimulus is presented (normally something sought after): positive reinforcement, positive punishment. Negative -answer-✔✔Stimulus is removed (normally an aversive): negative reinforcement, negative punishment Escape -answer-✔✔In escape, an organism's response terminates an aversive stimulus If the level of the target behavior increases only when applying the aversive stimulus, then the increase in behavior is owing to escape conditioning. Avoidance -answer-✔✔In avoidance, the response prevents or postpones a consequence. If the level of the target behavior increases only when applying the aversive stimulus, then the increase in behavior is owing to escape conditioning. However, PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 if the level of the target behavior increases at other times, then the increase in behavior is owing to avoidance conditioning. Both avoidance and escape _______ the level of the target behavior -answer- ✔✔increase Shaping -answer-✔✔A method for generating new behavior in which responses that are increasingly like the goal behavior are successively reinforced. pavlovian extinction -answer-✔✔responses occur, unreinforced, and decline in strength due to nonreinforcement. pavlovian forgetting -answer-✔✔responses do not occur over a period of time and decline in strength due to nonoccurrence. discrete trial procedure -answer-✔✔the behavior of the participant ends the trial. For example, each time one of Thorndike's cats escaped from a box, that marked the end of the trial. free operant procedure -answer-✔✔Skinner used a free operant procedure in his research. In this approach, the behavior may be repeated any number of times. For instance, in some experiments Skinner placed a rat in an operant chamber equipped with a lever. Pressing the lever might cause a bit of food to fall into a tray, but the rat was free to return to the lever and press it again and again. Pavlovian conditioning typically involves _________(reflexive) behavior, such as the blink of an eye or the secretion of digestive juices; operant learning usually involves _______ behavior, such as the wink of an eye or the purchase of food. - answer-✔✔involuntary, voluntary What four advantages do conditioned (secondary) reinforcers have over unconditioned (or primary) reinforcers? -answer-✔✔secondary reinforcers tend to be very durable it is often much easier to reinforce behavior immediately with them than with primary reinforcers. PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 3 factors that affect the rate of extinction -answer-✔✔The rate at which extinction occurs depends on a number of factors, including: the number of times the behavior was reinforced before extinction the effort the behavior requires the size of the reinforcer used during training Hull's drive-reduction theory -answer-✔✔believed that animals and people behave because of motivational states called drives. For him, all behavior is literally driven. An animal deprived of food, for example, is driven to obtain food. Relative Value Theory -answer-✔✔in any given situation some kinds of behavior have a greater likelihood of occurrence than others. A rat is typically more likely to eat, given the opportunity to do so, than it is to press a lever. different kinds of behavior have different values, relative to one another, at any given moment. It is these relative values, said Premack, that determine the reinforcing properties of behavior As a measure of the relative values of two activities, Premack suggested:_____ - answer-✔✔measuring the amount of time a participant engages in both activities, given a choice between them. Hull's drive-reduction theory advantages -answer-✔✔works reasonably well with primary reinforcers such as food and water. Hull's drive-reduction theory disadvantages -answer-✔✔there are many reinforcers that do not seem to reduce physiological needs. Relative Value Theory advantages -answer-✔✔has the advantage of being strictly empirical; no hypothetical concepts, such as drive, are required. An event is reinforcing simply because it provides the opportunity to engage in preferred behavior. Relative Value Theory disadvantages -answer-✔✔Premack (1965) himself notes, his theory does not explain why the word yes (for example) is often reinforcing. PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 Another problem with the theory is that low-probability behavior will reinforce high-probability behavior if the participant has been prevented from performing the low probability behavior for some time Response Deprivation Theory -answer-✔✔The central idea of this theory is that behavior becomes reinforcing when the individual is prevented from engaging in it at its normal frequency. Any behavior that occurs with some frequency has a baseline level. a behavior is reinforcing to the extent that the individual has been prevented from performing that behavior at its normal rate Response Deprivation Theory advantages -answer-✔✔Response deprivation theory works well enough for many reinforcers Response Deprivation Theory disadvantages -answer-✔✔has trouble explaining the reinforcing power of yes. Words such as yes, right, and correct can be powerfully reinforcing. List three theories of positive reinforcement -answer-✔✔Response Deprivation, Relative Value Theory, Hull's drive-reduction theory list the two theories of avoidance -answer-✔✔two process, and one process. two-process theory of avoidance -answer-✔✔Two-process theory says that two kinds of learning experiences are involved in avoidance learning, Pavlovian and operant According to two-process theory, then, there really is no such thing as avoidance, there is only escape: First the dog escapes the shock, and then it escapes the dark chamber. two-process theory of avoidance disadvantages -answer-✔✔There is evidence that the signal for shock does lose its aversiveness, yet the avoidance response persists PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 Sidman avoidance procedure. In this procedure, the shock is not preceded by a tone or other signal. Sidman avoidance procedure -answer-✔✔In this procedure, the shock is not preceded by a tone or other signal. A rat receives shocks at regular intervals through a grid floor, but it can delay the shocks for 15 seconds by pressing a lever. One-process theory of avoidance -answer-✔✔proposes that avoidance involves only one process: operant learning. Both escape and avoidance behaviors are reinforced by a reduction in aversive stimulation. There is a reduction in exposure to shock, and this is reinforcing. the best way to get an animal (or person) to stop performing an unnecessary avoidance behavior is to ____________ -answer- ✔✔prevent the behavior from occurring. John Nevin has suggested that reinforcement give behavior ______ -answer- ✔✔momentum Research suggests that what appears to be vicarious classical conditioning may in fact be a form of ______ conditioning -answer-✔✔higher-order punishment -answer-✔✔punishment, a decrease in the strength of behavior due to its consequences. Define punishment in terms of its three characteristic features. -answer-✔✔a behavior must have a consequence the behavior must decrease in strength the reduction in strength must be the result of the consequence. positive punishment -answer-✔✔(an aversive event) is added to the situation. PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 differential reinforcement -answer-✔✔Any operant training procedure in which certain kinds of behavior are systematically reinforced and others are not DRL (differential reinforcement of low rates) -answer-✔✔reinforcers are provided for a behavior, but only when it occurs infrequently. a parent might praise a child who practices playing the drums—but only if the playing occurs after a twenty-four hour period. DR0 (differential reinforcement of other behavior) (differential reinforcement of zero responding,) -answer-✔✔With DR0, which stands for differential reinforcement of zero responding, reinforcement is contingent on not performing the behavior for a specified period of time. (DRI) differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior -answer-✔✔In DRI, you reinforce a behavior that is incompatible with the unwanted behavior. Moving rapidly is incompatible with moving slowly; smiling is generally incompatible with frowning Noncontingent reinforcement is also called ______ _____________ reinforcement -answer-✔✔response independent A possible problem with noncontigent reinforcement -answer-✔✔Timing of the reinforcer could encourage the behavior. Or create new problem behaviours. awareness -answer-✔✔To be self-aware is to observe ones own behavior. Awareness of self talk and feelings. benefits of self awareness -answer-✔✔Awareness of others behavior allows us to decide whether to engage with them, Mary is in a foul mood, mary is in a good mood. Awareness of our own behavior allows us catch sickness's early, as well as bad moods. We may then better predict what we should do in that situation. PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 How are children taught self-awareness? -answer-✔✔Humans learn from observation of other people. By observing and commenting on behavior that suggests certain experiences we teach the child to observe those private events. Skinner also notes that we teach children to make comments on and predictions from self observations. What are you doing? Why are you doing that? These questions direct the child to observe or comment on private experiences: thoughts and feelings. self-control -answer-✔✔The term self-control refers to the tendency to do things now that affect our later behavior. Usually, we exert self-control when we do something that is in our own long-term interests. List 6 methods of self control -answer-✔✔physical restraint, distancing, distraction, satiation, monitoring behavior, informing others of goals traditional view of language -answer-✔✔words are symbols for communicating ideas. Sent and received. Encoded decoded. skinners view on verbal language -answer-✔✔language is a form of behavior Verbal behavior to be understood in terms of function relationships between it and the environment events---particularily consequences. Reinforcement of language and shaping Define a problem using behavioral terms. -answer-✔✔A problem is a situation in which reinforcement is available, but the behavior necessary to produce it is not. In what respect does failure encourage creativity? -answer-✔✔Failure can increase creativity. Extinction of a behavior creates variability in behavior. When old tactics fail the organism tries something different. immunization training -answer-✔✔training that teaches an animal to escape an aversive. Will teach them to keep trying to escape in other situations compared to those who received an inescapable shock in the first trial. PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 learned industriousness -answer-✔✔reinforcing a high level of effort and persistence increases the tendency to work hard at difficult tasks for a prolonged period. You could say that he trains people not to become discouraged. How are many self-injurious behaviors maintained by negative reinforcement? - answer-✔✔Wolf noticed that self injurious behavior in disturbed children seemed to be precipitated by teacher requests. When a teacher asked a child to do something rate of self injury went up. Rate decreased when they did not. Self injury and other bizarre behavior were often negatively reinforced. The child finds that he can escape from an aversive situation by behaving in a bizaree or disruptive fashion. Functional assessment -answer-✔✔Functional assessment consists of observing the behavior under study, usually in a natural setting to identify naturally occurring events that might be influencing it. Hypotheses are formed and then tested. Typically suggests a effective treatment. vicarious learning -answer-✔✔Observational (or vicarious) learning may be defined as a change in behavior due to the experience of observing a model. Vicarious reinforcement -answer-✔✔An observer sees a model's behavior be rewarded, and this increases the likelihood that the observer will engage in the modeled behavior. Vicarious punishment -answer-✔✔Vicarious punishment: An observer sees a model's behavior be punished, and this decreases the likelihood that the observer will engage in the modeled behavior. Generalized imitation -answer-✔✔Generalized imitation: Generalized imitation is the ability to imitate many different novel behaviors without reinforcement for each instance of imitation. Most children acquire generalized imitation at a relatively early age, enabling them to imitate actions they have not observed before simply by the act of observation. Peer modeling -answer-✔✔Peer modeling: Peer modeling is imitation of a model who is a peer, someone similar to the observer. For example, if a fourth grader is PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 children who are learning about frogs will often misidentify toads as frogs due to the similarity between the two. response generalization -answer-✔✔response generalization, which occurs when reinforcing a response class causes an increase in responses similar to that response. For example, if we train a child to dial his home phone number in preparation for possible emergency, the child's correct dialing responses increase along with dialing similar numbers (e.g., off by a single digit). How can generalization be increased? -answer-✔✔One way to increase generalization is to provide training in a wide variety of settings. This has implications for education. Excitatory stimulus generalization -answer-✔✔Excitatory stimulus generalization occurs when strengthening a response to a stimulus during training also strengthens responding to similar stimuli. Inhibitory stimulus generalization -answer-✔✔Inhibitory stimulus generalization occurs when weakening a response to a stimulus during training also weakens responding to similar stimuli. Pavlovian discrimination training -answer-✔✔one stimulus (designated CS+) is regularly paired with a US, and another stimulus (designated CS-) regularly appears alone operant discrimination training -answer-✔✔one stimulus (designated S+ or SD, pronounced ess-dee) typically indicates that a behavior will have reinforcing consequences, and another stimulus (S- or S∆, pronounced ess-delta) indicates that the behavior will not have reinforcing consequences. S+ and S- are discriminative stimuli discriminative stimuli -answer-✔✔S+ and S- are discriminative stimuli—i.e., stimuli that are associated with different consequences for behavior. S+ indicates reward, S- indicates no reward. successive discrimination training -answer-✔✔the S+ and S- alternate, usually randomly. When the S+ appears, the behavior is reinforced; when the S- appears, the behavior is on extinction. PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 simultaneous discrimination training -answer-✔✔the discriminative stimuli are presented at the same time. matching to sample (MTS) discrimination -answer-✔✔In a procedure called matching to sample (MTS), the task is to select from two or more alternatives (called comparison stimuli) the stimulus that matches a standard (the sample). The comparison stimuli include the S+—the stimulus that matches the sample—and one or more S- stimuli. oddity matching procedure discrimination -answer-✔✔the task is to select a stimuli that is different from the sample. differential outcomes effect (DOE) -answer-✔✔shows that a positive effect on accuracy occurs in discrimination learning between different stimuli when unique rewards are paired with each individual stimulus. stimulus control -answer-✔✔When discrimination training brings behavior under the influence of discriminative stimuli, the behavior is said to be under stimulus control Pavlov's theory of stimulus discrimination/generalization -answer-✔✔Pavlov's theory is physiological. He believed that discrimination training produces physiological changes in the brain. Specifically, it establishes an area of excitation associated with the CS+, and an area of inhibition associated with the CS-. If a novel stimulus is similar to the CS+, it will excite an area of the brain near the CS+ area. The excitation will irradiate to the CS+ area and elicit the CR. Similarly, if a novel stimulus resembles the CS-, it will excite an area of the brain near the CS- area. The excitation of this area will irradiate to the CS- area and inhibit the CR. Spences theory of stimulus discrimination/generalization -answer-✔✔Spence proposed that the tendency to respond to any given stimulus was the result of the interaction of the increased and decreased tendencies to respond, as reflected in gradients of excitation and inhibition. PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 Karl Lashley and M. Wade theory of stimulus discrimination/generalization - answer-✔✔proposed an approach to generalization and discrimination that differs from those of Pavlov and Spence. These researchers argued that generalization gradients depend on prior experience with stimuli similar to those used in testing. concept -answer-✔✔Any class (i.e., group, category) the members of which share one or more defi ning features. For example, all spiders have eight legs Concepts require both ________ and _________. -answer- ✔✔generalization,discrimination transposition -answer-✔✔theories of transfer of training is called transposition. chickens learned to choose a darker square. When shown a darker square then the original they chose the darker square. This finding was interpreted to support the hypothesis that the birds had initially learned to respond to a relationship (what a human being would call the concept "darker") and that this response to a relationship had been transposed or transferred to the new discrimination. errors made during discrimination training tend to arouse _____ ________ reactions. -answer-✔✔negative emotional Excitatory Stimulus Control -answer-✔✔exists when a response is more likely to occur in the presence of a stimulus than in the absence of that stimulus. Inhibitory Stimulus Control -answer-✔✔exists when a response is more likely to occur in the absence of a stimulus than in the presence of that stimulus. Response generalization -answer-✔✔Response generalization (or response induction) occurs when reinforcing one class of responses results in a strengthening of similar responses outside the reinforced class. conceptual behavior -answer-✔✔Occurs when a class of stimuli that share stimulus features act as discriminative training stimuli for responding. PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 Thin reinforcement schedule -answer-✔✔People have also been known to work steadily on very "thin" schedules—schedules that require many responses for each reinforcement. Stretching the ratio -answer-✔✔The experimenter might start with a CRF schedule and, when the animal is working at a steady rate, increase the ratio to FR 3; when this schedule has been in force a while, the experimenter may go to FR 5, then FR 8, FR 12, FR 20, FR 30, and so on. This procedure is known as stretching the ratio ratio strain -answer-✔✔Stretching the ratio must be done with some care; stretch too rapidly or too far and the tendency to perform will break down, a phenomenon called ratio strain. Partial reinforcement effect (PRE) -answer-✔✔Partial reinforcement effect (PRE) The tendency of a behavior to be more resistant to extinction following partial reinforcement than following continuous reinforcement. (Also often referred to as the partial reinforcement extinction effect, or PREE.) Frustration hypothesis (PRE) -answer-✔✔The proposal that the PRE occurs because nonreinforcement is frustrating and during intermittent reinforcement frustration becomes an S+ for responding. Discrimination hypothesis (PRE) -answer-✔✔The proposal that the PRE occurs because it is harder to discriminate between intermittent reinforcement and extinction than between continuous reinforcement and extinction Sequential hypothesis (PRE) -answer-✔✔The proposal that the PRE occurs because the sequence of reinforced and nonreinforced behaviors during intermittent reinforcement becomes an S+ for responding during extinction. Response unit hypothesis (PRE) -answer-✔✔The proposal that the PRE is due to differences in the definition of a behavior during intermittent and continuous reinforcement. PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 multiple schedule of reinforcement -answer-✔✔In a multiple schedule, a behavior is under the influence of two or more simple schedules, each associated with a particular stimulus. A pigeon that has learned to peck a disk for grain may be put on a multiple schedule in which pecking is reinforced on an FI 10" schedule when a red light is on but on a VR 10 schedule when a yellow light is on. The two reinforcement schedules alternate, with the changes indicated by changes in the color of the light. mixed schedule of reinforcement -answer-✔✔A mixed schedule is the same as a multiple schedule except that there are no stimuli (such as red and yellow lights) associated with the change in reinforcement contingencies. concurrent schedule of reinforcement -answer-✔✔In concurrent schedules, two or more schedules are available at once. Matching law -answer-✔✔The principle that, given the opportunity to respond on two or more reinforcement schedules, the rate of responding on each schedule will match the reinforcement available on each schedule. forgetting -answer-✔✔forgetting can be defined as deterioration in learned behavior following a period without practice. retention interval -answer-✔✔The time between training and testing for forgetting free recall -answer-✔✔the individual is given the opportunity to perform a previously learned behavior following a retention interval relearning method of forgetting -answer-✔✔measures forgetting in terms of the amount of training required to reach the previous level of performance. recognition -answer-✔✔the participant has only to identify the material previously learned. multiple choice prompted or cued recallv -answer-✔✔consists of presenting hints, or prompts, to increase the likelihood that the behavior will be produced. A person who has PSYC 387 Final Prep Athabasca University Exam Questions and Answers 2024 studied a list of French words, for example, may be given a list of anagrams of the words delayed matching to sample (DMTS) -answer-✔✔A method of measuring forgetting in which the opportunity to match a sample follows a retention interval. Abbreviated DMTS. extinction method forgetting -answer-✔✔A method of measuring forgetting by comparing the rate of extinction after a retention interval with the rate of extinction immediately after training gradient degradation as a measure of forgetting -answer-✔✔Forgetting may also be measured as a flattening of a generalization gradient To the extent that training establishes stimulus control, any decline in the steepness of the generalization gradient indicates forgetting. Which two individuals contributed to the popular notion that memories are permanently stored in the brain? -answer-✔✔Freud, Wilder Penfield Why did McGeoch say that forgetting is not due to time -answer-✔✔time is not something that actually occurs. It is an invention. it is certain kinds of experiences, not time, that change behavior. Likewise, forgetting occurs in time, and the neurological "record" of learning may, in fact, decay, but if decay occurs, time does not cause it. "Time, in and of itself," wrote McGeoch, "does nothing" proactive interference -answer-✔✔Forgetting caused by learning that occurred prior to the behavior in question. old interferes with new information Bartletts war of ghost experiment Retroactive interference -answer-✔✔Forgetting caused by learning that occurred subsequent to the behavior in question. new interferes with old information