PSYC 387 – Learning final exam tips key words study guide Athabasca University, Exams of Psychology

Download PSYC 387 – Learning final exam tips key words study guide Athabasca University and more Exams Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! PSYC 387 – Learning final exam tips key words study guide Athabasca University PSYC 387 – Learning final exam tips key words study guide Athabasca University Aversion Therapy - --A form of counter conditioning where a CS is paired with an aversive US Backward Training - --A chaining procedure where training begins with the last link in the chain and adds preceding links in reverse order The brown-headed cowbird deposits its eggs in the nests of other birds. This is most likely a - --fixed action pattern Natural selection is often - --behind the times Balster and colleagues suggest that inhumane treatment of research animals is - --bad science Any variable an experimenter manipulates is a/an ________ variable. - --independent In her study of baboons, Shirley Strum found that the most successful males were - --less aggressive than other males. Natural selection is illustrated by changes in the colouration of the Peppered Moth resulting from - -- industrial pollution The kind of study that is most likely to involve a large number of subjects is one with a/an - -- between-subjects design In group-design experiments, researchers often use _________ to reduce differences among participants. - --matched sampling In a cumulative record, learning is indicated by change in response - --rate A teacher who looks for an increase in the number of correct performances per minute is using _______ as a measure of learning. - --fluency salivary reflex - --begins the process of digestion Sensitization - --Eliciting a reflex response increases the intensity or probability of the response to stimuli Fixed Action Pattern - --a largely inherited series of interrelated acts How do FAP's resemble reflexes? - --They have a strong genetic basis; display relatively little variability and are often reliably elicited by an event. How do FAP's differ from reflexes? - --They involve the entire organism, are more complex, consist of series' of reflex-like acts, are more variable but still stereotypic What are common benefits of FAP - --Protect from predators and the elements, useful in getting food, helpful in mating, help with rearing the young. Releasing Stimuli / Releasers - --Any stimulus that reliably elicits a fixed action pattern What is biophilia? - --The innately emotional affiliation of human's to other living beings. General behavior traits - --Any general behavioral tendency that is influenced by genes. What are examples of behavior traits? - --Hoarding, anxiety, aggression, sex Aversives - --things an organism strives to avoid What problem is there with aggression as a fixed action pattern with aversives as releasers? - --It increases aggressive behavior Does heredity play a role in the appearance of general behavior traits? - --Yes What is the chief limitation of natural selection - --It is slow Learning gives a species - --the tendency to modify behavior to suit a situation The trouble with the nature-nurture debate is - --it creates divisions between heredity and experience Deviant behaviors are - --products of heredity and learning The ability to learn is the product of - --heredity and experience Explaining a phenomenon means - --identifying the physical events producing it The word change is preferred over acquisition because - --learning does not always involve acquiring something Behavior is - --anything an organism does that can be measured Operational definition - --a definition that specifies the procedure by which a term will be measured If something can be operationally defined - --it can be studied Stimulus - --an event that elicits behavior Ways to measure learning - --reduction of errors, topography, intensity, change in latency, rate or frequency cumulative recorder - --An apparatus that records each occurrence of behavior cumulative record - --a record of behavior, each point reflecting the total number of times a behavior was performed circular explanation - --the explanation is the very thing being explained constructivism - --the debate that science is a debate about an unknowable reality Experience - --an event capable of affecting behavior Fluency - --is a combination of errors and rate; the number correct per minute anecdotal evidence - --first or secondhand reports of personal experiences Case Study - --studying a particular individual in considerable detail Descriptive study - --describing a group by obtaining data from it's members through interviews or questionnaires What are limitations to a case study? - --they take time and don't answer a lot of questions a method of measuring forgetting in which hints about the behavior to be performed are given - -- prompted recall/cued recall a method of measuring forgetting in which the original training procedure is reinstated - --re-learning method/savings method Who conducted the first experiment on forgetting? - --Ebbinghaus recognition - --the participant identifies the material previously learned Delayed matching to sample - --the opportunity to match a sample follows a retention interval extinction method - --comparing the rate of extinction after a retention interval with the rate of extinction immediately after training Which two individuals contributed to the popular notion that memories are permanently stored in the brain? - --Freud (repression) and Penfield (past experiences) gradient degradation - --behavior is tested for generalization before and after a retention interval What is the general relationship between the length of the retention interval and forgetting? - --the longer the retention interval the longer the re-learning How did Ebbinghaus demonstrate the relationship between how well something is learned and the likelihood of forgetting? - --he found a systematic correlation between the number of learning trials and amount of forgetting. Overlearning - --continuing to learn beyond the point required to produce error less performance How can fluency be used to measure overlearning? - --it can be used to measure the degree of learning in terms of number of trials required for accurate performance or the number of correct responses per minute Describe the relationship between the degree of overlearning and long-term retention. - --the higher the degree of over-learning the less likely to forget Describe the elationship between meaningfulness and forgetting. - --The more meaningful material is the easier to remember Chase and Simon's study of chess players and forgetting found - --prior learning plays an important role in recall. proactive interference (proactive inhibition) - --forgetting caused by prior learning paired associate learning - --a person learns a list of words or stimuli pairs so that when given the first word, the participant produces the second Describe the relationship between activity during the retention interval and forgetting? - --periods of inactivity produce less forgetting than periods of greater activity. retroactive interference (retroactive inhibition) - --when learning interferes with the ability to recall earlier learning imagination inflation - --imagining an event which never happened can convince a person the event took place forgetting that results from the absence of cues that were present during training - --cue-dependent forgetting Give an example of cue-dependent forgetting - --a person who learns to study in their bedroom may forget what they studied when they're in a classroom reminiscence - --when performance improves with the passage of time The first study of reminiscence was probably done by - --Leon Kamin state-dependent learning - --learning occurs during a particular psychological state and is lost when that state passes Learning has tremendous _______ value - --survival Loftus' study on eyewitness testimony showed - --how accurately a person describes a witnessed event depends on how we ask about the event Describe Ericsson and Chase's research showing how ordinary people can improve their recall - --SF trained with a series of digits that he learned to produce. Eventually his memory stretched and could recall up to 82 digits. A technique using flash cards in which you go through the cards as fast as you can, in one minute, each day and then shuffle and repeat. - --SAFMEDS Mnemonic - --any device for aiding recall Give an example of a mnemonic. - --A rhyme or an acronym the idea that organisms are genetically disposed to learn some things and not others - --continuum of preparedness Describe the three tiers in Selgiman's continuum - --prepared (learning is quick) unprepared (learning is slow) contraprepared (learning is slow and irregular) What did K.S. Kendler find regarding the incidence of social phobias among identical twins? - --they have a genetic basis and some people are genetically prepared to acquire them Lenneberg's views regarding the acquisition of language - --language development follows a regular, predictable pattern around the world; we all learn the same way but some cannot learn tot he same level of complexity Provide examples of large-scale human problems that can be understood in terms of behavioral problems. - --war, crime, diseases, pollution, drug and child abuse, etc What is the underlying meaning of the textbook? - --once people recognize societies problems are behavioral and not natural, they can prevent, solve or fight them by changing behavior. To measure forgetting, Ebbinghaus used - --the relearning method The first person to demonstrate the relationship between forgetting and degree of learning was probably - --Ebbinghaus Ericsson and Chase found that after training, SF could recall series of up to _______ digits. - --82 Skinner's effort to teach pigeons to play Ping-Pong demonstrates that the inability to learn a skill may sometimes be overcome by - --making allowances for physical limitations When forgetting occurs because the environment during recall is different from the environment during training, it is said to be - --cue-dependent. The first person to argue that the passage of time does not cause forgetting was probably - -- McGeoch. Armadillos curl up into a ball when attacked. Reginald teaches an armadillo to curl up into a ball when a buzzer sounds. Reginald is making use of the phenomenon known as - --preparedness. Degree of learning can be measured as the number of correct responses per minute. This is called - -- fluency Forgetting can be studied by requiring the subject to match a stimulus presented earlier, a procedure called - --delayed matching to sample Kendler found evidence that phobias - --have a genetic component. Frances puts a hungry rat into an experimental chamber. Whenever the rat presses a lever, food falls into a tray. In about 30 minutes, the rat is pressing the lever steadily. Frances returns the rat to the training cage for one hour a day every day until the rat produces young. Frances then trains one of this rat's offspring in the same manner as its mother and repeats this procedure for generation after generation. You predict that when the twelfth generation rat is put into the training cage, it will press the lever steadily in about _________ minutes. - --30 Jack and Jill go up a hill to fetch a pail of water. Jack falls down and breaks his crown; Jill thinks he may have suffered a concussion. Jack can't remember anything that happened from the time he and Jill started up the hill. Jill takes Jack up the hill again and finds that he remembers seeing the well earlier. Jill is measuring forgetting by using - --prompted recall. According to the author of the text, the history of memory has been a story of - --metaphors Forgetting is the deterioration of - --performance What is an example of learning in which no new behavior is acquired - --An increase or reduction in the rate of behavior schedule of reinforcement - --A rule describing the delivery of reinforcers for behavior schedule effects - --the rate and pattern of responding in a reinforcement schedule continuous reinforcement schedule (CRF) - --behavior is reinforced every time it occurs Fixed-Ratio (FR) schedule - --a behavior is reinforced when it has occurred a fixed number of times intermittent schedule - --reinforcement occurs on some occasions but not others the response pattern of a fixed-ratio schedule is - --A high rate of performance followed by short pauses after reinforcement post-reinforcement pauses (PRP) - --the pauses that follow reinforcement the more work required for reinforcement usually means - --the longer the post-reinforcement pause run rate - --the rate at which an organism performs once it resumed work after reinforcement variable-ratio schedule (VR) - --a behavior is reinforced after it has occurred a variable amount of times The frustration hypothesis states that frustration is an aversive emotional state, so - --anything that reduces frustration will be reinforcing. (CRF = no frustration. Extinction = Frustration). What hypothesis attributes the PRE to differences int he sequences of cues during training? - -- Sequential hypothesis (Capaldi) What do the frustration and sequential hypotheses have in common? - --they assume extinction is active and involves discrimination learning. What hypothesis attributes the PRE to differences in the definition of a behavior during intermittent and continuous reinforcement? - --Response unit hypothesis. multiple schedule of reinforcement (MULTI) - --a behavior under the influence of two or more simple schedules, each associated with a particular stimulus mixed schedule (MIX) - --a behavior under the influence of two or more simple schedules, neither associated with a particular stimulus chain schedule (CHAIN) - --reinforcement is delivered only on completion of the last in a series of schedules tandem schedule - --reinforcement is delivered only on completion of the last schedule in a series, not associated with different stimuli cooperative schedule - --schedules arranged so reinforcement is dependent on the behavior of two or more individuals concurrent schedule - --two or more schedules are available at once The principle that given the opportunity to respond on two or more schedules,t he rate of responding on each schedule will match the reinforcement available on each schedule - --matching law Why is it a poor strategy to switch back and forth between two different ratio schedules of reinforcement? - --because it is pointless; nothing is gained Why is it a good strategy to switch between two different interval schedules of reinforcement? - -- because the pay off is higher Herrnstein's formula that predicts choice in a two-choice situation? - --B(A) / B(A) + B(B) = r(A)/r(A) +r(B) What is Herrnstein's formula that predicts choice in a multiple-choice situation? - --B(A)/B(A)+B(O) = r(A)/r(A)+r(O) B(A) represents - --the particular behavior of study B(O) represents - --all other behaviors r(A) represents - --reinforcers available for B(A) r(O) represents - --reinforcers available for all other behavior What is an example of the matching law describing human behavior.? - --A profitable farm that does well in good weather and a less profitable farm that does well in all weather What type of reinforcement schedule maintains gambling behavior? - --Variable ratio schedule How can "early wins" and "near misses" lead to compulsive gambling? - --Early variations in the schedule produce differences in the tendency to continue gambling. Experimental (or behavioral) economics - --the use of reinforcement schedules to study economic principles Give an example of how reinforcement schedules can be studied in experimental (or behavioral) economic - --When the price of a luxury item rises, the consumption of that item declines. But when price of an essential item rises there is little change in consumption feigning illness or pain in order to avoid unpleasant duties is called - --malingering Goldberg and Cheney tested the idea that operant behavior associated with chronic pain may be maintained by reinforcement after the pain has ceased. They used ___ as their subjects - --rats Goldberg and Cheney's experimental analogue for malingering found that - --malingering may continue even though everyone, including the malingerer, loses by it. What criticisms have been made of research in reinforcement schedules? - --experiments are artificial, the findings are trivial, inapplicable to people What are the advantages of research into schedules of reinforcement? - --answer questions that might otherwise be difficult to answer' gives scientific way to explain behavior How can reinforcement schedules be used as a baseline to study the effects of different independent variables on behavior? - --reinforcement schedules generate consistent and stable patterns of performance and can evaluate differences in behavior (due to sleep, diet, etc) stable patterns of responding are called - --steady states he rule describing the delivery of reinforcement is called a ________ of reinforcement. - --schedule In CRF, the ratio of reinforcers to responses is 1 to 1; in FR 1, the ratio is - --1 to 1 Jimmie was a food gobbler. He would gobble his food without chewing it adequately. Not only was this an unattractive table behavior, it was hard on Jimmie's digestive system. Jimmie's mom decided to give Jimmie a spoonful of food only if he chewed his previous bite 10 times before swallowing. The spoonful of food is the reinforcer and adequate chewing is the target behavior. This is a - --fixed ratio (FR) A token system was used at a nursing home for geriatric patients. As one part of the token economy, the patients received a special token if they told a joke to another patient. If they accumulated 10 joke-telling tokens, they could exchange the tokens for several free videos. The target behavior is telling one joke and the reinforcer is the token. This is a - --fixed ratio (FR) How might you use what you know about reinforcement schedules to study the effects of air temperature on behavior? - --In all schedules it is easy to monitor the effects of air temperature of behaviour. Most reinforcement schedules can be adapted to higher or lower reinfocement requirements (FR10 vs FI100/VI 10 vs VR 100). In VI, VR, FR, FI scheudles however, behaviour is easier to be noticed due to significantly high run rates than others mentioned, so these schedules might be the best to use while trying to study these effects. A teacher has a student who gives up at the first sign of difficulty. How can the teacher increase the child's persistence? - --The teacher can put him on a CRF schedule. Once the behavior is established the teacher stretches the ratio. Instead of a CRF the teacher moves to a FR 3 or 3. Once this is achieved, the teacher could once again switch schedules onto a variable ratio or fixed interval schedule. In these cases, the child is still being reinforced to ensure excintion does not occur, but his behaviour has been shaped so that less reinforcement is necessary. What is generalization? - --The tendency for learned behavior to spread to other situations What is discrimination? - --The tendency to behave differently in different situations. Stimulus generalization - --a response reinforced in the presence of a stimulus causes that response to also occur with stimuli that are similar response generalization - --a response class causes an increase in responses similar to that response How did Watson and Rayner demonstrate generalization of Pavlovian conditioning in their work with Little Albert? - --They generalized his fear to other objects The first report of generalization came from - --Thorndike How can generalization be increased? - --Provide training in a wide variety of settings Learned industriousness - --rewarding a high level of effort on one task increases the level of effort on other tasks. When is generalization not helpful? - --when behavior that's useful in one situation generalizes to situations where it is not. What is a generalization gradient? - --any graphic representation of generalization data. The form of a gradient depends on - --amount of training, method of testing, and stimulus. semantic generalization - --learned behavior generalizing on the basis of an abstract feature The first study of semantic generalization was probably by - --Gregory Razran Provide an example of racial or nationality-based prejudice that is due to semantic generalization - --In the US during WW2, Japanese was paired with unpleasant words (dirty, cruel, enemy) and these pairing result in negative emotional reactions that generalize to Asian/Oriental Changes in behavior produced by _____ and ______ spread beyond training - --extinction, punishment Excitatory stimulus generalization occurs when - --strengthening a response to a stimulus during training also strengthens responding to similar stimuli Inhibitory stimulus generalization occurs when - --weakening a response to a stimulus during training also weakens responding to similar stimuli. Discrimination training - --any procedure that establishes a discrimination In Pavlovian discrimination training - --one stimulus (CS+) is paired with a US and another stimulus (CS-) appears without a US In operant discrimination training - --S+ indicates reinforcement and S- indicates non-reinforcement. discriminative stimuli - --stimuli that are associated with different consequences for behavior simultaneous forms of stimulus discrimination training - --the discriminative stimuli are presented at the same time successive forms of stimulus discrimination training - --the S+ and S- alternate, usually randomly. S+ is reinforced, S- is extinction variable feature - --is not critical to the discrimination and may or may not be present Explain why learning to respond to stimulus features, rather than individual stimuli, is valuable. - -- Once you acquire responses to classes of stimuli defined by its features, you can respond correctly to new stimulus-class members under generalization - --failure to identify members of a conceptual stimulus class as concept instances overgeneralization - --failure to correctly identify concept non-instances outside a conceptual stimulus class as concept instances under generalization is sometimes called - --under extension over generalization is sometimes called - --over extension In order to demonstrate conceptual behavior, it is necessary to show that - --critical features of the concept are discriminative stimuli Many concepts have labels or words that refer to - --the critical feature of the stimulus class. Differences in the meaning that different people attach to the same words are often due to - -- differences in the conceptual stimulus features that have been established as discriminative stimuli principles that make stimulus discrimination effective generally apply to - --conceptual discrimination A specific means of defining the goal of conceptual discrimination - --concept analysis concept definition - --specifies the features of a concept that make it a member of the conceptual stimulus class Complete concept learning often also requires - --examples and non-examples A method of teaching that promotes retention of conceptual discrimination by giving abstract material a concrete representation. - --focal example method sameness principle - --using a broad range of very different examples to illustrate the same concept minimum difference principle - --providing non-examples of the concept that are minimally different from concept examples errors of misconception - --variable features of the concept are responded to as critical features generalized response class - --the act or process of making a different but similar response to the same stimulus Generalized response classes are also called - --operations the training that produces a generalized response class is sometimes called - --operations training generalized imitation training - --learner's imitations of specific modeled behaviors are prompted and reinforced Goetz and Baer training with pre-school children is an example of imitation training because - --(a) the trained response had a specified feature (b) the training resulted in the children being able to perform new responses that had the specified property Conceptual behavior and generalized response classes are similar in what ways - --both are defined in terms of features, the stimulus and response class members differ from each other in certain respects and the tests are similar because they both require that the learner do something new Give an example of conceptual behavior and generalized responses classes being learned in the same task - --solving a mathematics story problem general-case instruction is also called - --called general-case training and general-case programming general-case instruction - --A teaching method that is designed to teach both conceptual and generalized response classes at the same time Give an example of general-case instruction - --teaching someone to use a vending machine In teaching any behavior using behavior analysis methods, the first step is to - --define the skills one is to acquire The following conditions influence the learning of conceptual behavior and generalized response classes - --defining the goal, analyzing the critical stimulus and response features, rules that identify the critical stimulus and response features, a variety of tasks, testing formation by requiring performance on novel task Sameness analysis - --identifying common stimulus and response features that are present in tasks, and making this the basis for instruction T/F. Pigeons that have learned to peck a disk when two lights of the same colour come on, but not when the lights differ, can be said to have learned a concept. - --True T/F. With discrimination training, pigeons have learned to discriminate between paintings by Monet and Picasso, even when the pictures were ones they had never seen before. - --True Sometimes a response generalizes on the basis of the meaning of a stimulus. This is called - --semantic generalization In ____________ discrimination training an S- is introduced in a form so weak that the organism does not respond to it. - --errorless Frances and Michael were working on a social psychology project in which they wanted to increase the frequency of smiling of the workers in a large government office building. They made a lot of paper flowers and walked the halls of the building, giving them to people only when they were smiling. They found that this method increased the number of people who smiled. - --This is not an example of stimulus discrimination training. Sara was teaching young Daniel how to shake hands with people when initially introduced to them. She used praise as a reinforcer. However, Dan would shake hands with everyone he encountered, not just people to whom he was introduced. - --This is not an example of stimulus discrimination training. Sylvia saw a woman who looked a great deal like her girlfriend Jenny on a downtown street. She tapped the woman on the shoulder and said, "Jenny! I haven't seen you for years." The woman turned to her and Sylvia, realizing the woman wasn't Jenny, said, "Excuse me. I thought you were someone else. You look so much like my friend." - --This is an example of excitatory stimulus generalization. Barbara was teaching young Tony to identify shirts as shirts and blouses as blouses by giving him praise every time he correctly identified a piece of clothing. However, in spite of the training sessions, Tony continued to identify both shirts and blouses as shirts. - --This is an example of excitatory stimulus generalization. Donna was on a shopping trip with her friend Edna. At the power tools counter, Donna spoke to a woman who looked like Edna about how her (Donna's) husband, Karl, could use a new chain saw. The stranger was confused because she wasn't married and didn't know anyone named Karl. - --This is not an example of response induction. Rose worked on a piece-work basis, making quilts. For each quilt she made she got $100, a reinforcer which maintained her quilt-making rate at one every two months (one-half quilt per month or six quilts per year). - --This is not an example of response induction. Students in a film appreciation course were learning to identify examples of unresolved subplots. An unresolved subplot is a defect in a story in which a conflict or problem is introduced, but not resolved. The students studied several examples as well as examples of films that did not have unresolved subplots. On the take-home final exam in the course, the students were given several videotapes of films to watch, ones they had not seen before or discussed in class. One of the things the students were required to do was to identify unresolved subplots. The students correctly identified all the unresolved subplots in horror films, but failed to do so in other types of films. What best describes the above illustration? - --Undergeneralization Luis was studying behavior analysis. He studied a programmed exercise in which he read and responded to a set of examples and non-examples of the concept of positive-practice overcorrection. On a test, he was required to identify novel examples and non-examples of positive practice overcorrection, which he could do, and to write novel examples of positive-practice overcorrection, which he failed to do. What best describes the above illustration? - --conceptual behavior Sam had taken a drawing class in which he had received extensive practice in drawing many different types of objects, including various kinds of still life and human figures. After the course, Sam could perceive the characteristics of and draw any new object he encountered. What best describes the above illustration? - --Conceptual behavior & generalized response class What did Machiavelli say regarding punishment? - --Fear preserves you by a dread of punishment that never fails What did Benjamin Franklin say regarding punishment? - --those who are feared, are hated. What percentage of Americans approve of the use of physical (corporal) punishment in schools? - -- 50% Define punishment - --the procedure of providing consequences that reduce the strength of behavior What are the three characteristics of punishment? - --A behavior must have a consequence, behavior must decrease in strength, the reduction must be a result of the consequence. What is a punisher? - --The consequences involved in punishment Positive punishment - --A behavior results in something (usually an aversive) is added to the situation, reducing behavior. Negative punishment - --A behavior results in something being removed from the situation, reducing behavior. Negative punishment is also called - --penalty training Describe how punishment differs from negative reinforcement - --Reinforcement makes behavior more likely to occur while punishment makes behavior less likely to occur. Describe how the contingency variable influences the effectiveness of punishment - --The greater degree of contingency between a behavior and a punishment, the faster behavior changes differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) - --the reinforcers that were available for the problem behavior are made contingent on some more desirable behavior. non-contingent reinforcement (NCR) - --reinforcement delivered without regard to behavior Noncontingent reinforcement is also called - --response independent reinforcement How does the environment select behavior? - --an organism behaves in a certain way, and the environment reinforces, punishes, or ignores that behavior How did Wilkes use operant procedures to train an elephant - --He used shaping. In behavioral terms, what does self-awareness consist of? - --observing one's own behavior Gallup and Epstien showed self-awareness is available to - --chimps and pigeons How are children taught self-awareness? - --By observing and commenting on behavior that suggests certain experience, they learn to observe those private events. Define self-control - --the tendency to act in our own best interests To have self control means - --to choose wisely and do things in our best long-term interests What problem is there with explaining self-control as willpower, discipline, or strength of character? - --They're circular explanations physical restraint, distancing, distraction, deprivation/satisfaction, informing others, monitoring are examples of - --techniques of self control The traditional view of language holds that words are _____ for communicating ______, that are said to be encoded to another person in _______ - --symbols, ideas, speech. Skinner believed if we want to understand verbal behavior - --we must examine the effects of verbal behavior on the environment The work of Greenspoon clearly shows that verbal behavior - --is a function of its consequences Verplanck's study of punishment and reinforcement showed what - --reinforcement encourages opinions while punishment silences opinions Studies of Greenspoon, Verplank and Quay offer no evidence that the subjects knew there was - --a reinforcement contingency in force A problem is a situation in which reinforcement is available but - --the behavior to produce it is not. The best-known experiments on insightful problem solving are those described in The Mentality of Apes by - --Wolfgang Kohler "sudden insight" depends on - --previous reinforcement of the behaviors required for the solution. In behavioral terms, what is creativity? - --to behave in original ways The ancient view of creativity is - --the muse visited a person. The modern view of creativity is - --moves the muse into the person, usually lodged in the unconscious mind. All an animal trainer has to do to get novel behavior is to - --reinforce the novel behavior. What criticism is sometimes made of using reinforcement regarding creativity? - --rewards for creative performance result in less effort. If you want people to be creative you should make reinforcing consequences contingent on _________ behavior. - --creative. How does failure encourage creativity? - --when a behavior that has been repeatedly reinforced is put on extinction, there is an increase in that behavior. Describe Skinner's superstition experiment. - --When an animal was reinforced it had to be doing something, and that was accidentally reinforced. Wagner and Morris' study on superstitious behavior showed - --superstitious behavior in children. Bruner and Revusky used adventitious reinforcement to - --establish superstition in high school students. Herrnstien argued that if the essential feature produces reinforcement - --the other features are adventitiously reinforced. How can one protect themselves from superstitious inclinations? - --the scientific method (observations under controlled situations) Learned helplessness - --failure to escape an aversive following exposure to an inescapable aversive How do the consequences of the observer's behavior influence vicarious learning? - --If there are two different consequences for model and observer, the observer behavior wins. How do characteristics of the model influence vicarious learning? - --Observers tend to learn more from models who are competent, attractive, likable, and prestigious. Hows does age influence vicarious learning? - --adults learn better than children from observation How does the observer's learning history influence vicarious learning? - --A person's learning history may influence the type of model they imitate. What are two other variables influencing vicarious learning? - --emotional state and complexity of task. Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory - --Vicarious learning is accounted for by four processes that occur during or shortly after observation of a model (attentional/retentional/motor reproductive/motivational) Attentional processes - --an organism observing relevant aspects of model behavior and its consequences Motor reproductive processes - --the skills required to perform model behavior Retentional processes - --acts by the observer to aid recall of modeled behavior Motivational processes - --the expectation that a modeled behavior will be reinforced Millar-Dollard Reinforcement Theory - --The changes of the observer's behavior are due to the consequences of the observer's behavior not the model. Bandura's theory looks for an explanation _______ the individual - --inside The Millar-Dollard theory looks to the observer's ________ for an explanation - --learning history Evidence suggests that ______ _______ plays an important role in foraging - --Vicarious learning Bandura's experiment on violence and vicarious learning showed - --Children were more likely to commit aggressive acts if they watched a model be reinforced for doing so. How can vicarious learning be used to treat phobias? - --Observing models interact with feared object without negative effects Participant modeling - --a therapeutic technique combining modeling and counterconditioning. Harriet hears a noise in the kitchen and investigates. She finds the cookie jar in pieces on the floor and 5-year-old Willy standing nearby. Harriet knows what happened, but asks Willy anyway. Willy admits that he broke the jar while trying to get cookies. Harriet gives Willy a spanking. Willy is most likely to learn from this experience that - --it doesn't pay to tell the truth John, a very successful professional boxer, fights regularly with formidable opponents. He has often been injured in these fights and knows that he risks sustaining serious brain damage or other permanent injuries, yet he continues to fight. This example illustrates that bizarre behavior - --is less puzzling when the reinforcers maintaining it are known Presley and Riopelle studied vicarious avoidance learning in monkeys. They found that - --the slowest learning observer did as well as the fastest learning model In the treatment of long-standing self-injurious behavior, punishment is often - --effective. According to B. F. Skinner, we develop self-awareness largely through - --the comments of other people Of the following procedures, the one that reinforces behavior that cannot be performed at the same time as the unwanted behavior is - --DRI Jack is a homeless man who lives on the streets of Calgary. One cold, January night, he takes up a position outside a fancy restaurant and starts shouting, "God has ordered an equestrian invasion of Banff." The restaurant owner calls the police and they take Jack to a hospital, where he spends a quiet night. The next morning, a doctor examines Jack and tells him he is well enough to be discharged. Jack immediately begins shouting about the equestrian invasion of Banff. You tentatively conclude that - -- Jack's hallucinations are products of reinforcement Karen Pryor demonstrated that she could reinforce novel behavior. Her subjects were - --porpoises Coincidental reinforcement plays an important role in - --behavior Five-year-old Rex had the bad habit of stealing candy at the grocery store. One day when he had not stolen any candy, his mother told him that stealing was wrong and that he was not to do it ever again. As a result, Rex stopped stealing candy. - --not punishment. Alstair was a 4-year-old who pounced on the other children at his day care center. This center used tokens as reinforcers for appropriate behavior, and the children could accumulate and trade the tokens for special privileges. Whenever Alstair pounced on another child, three of his tokens were taken away from him. This procedure reduced the rate of Alstair's pouncing behavior. - --response cost. Response cost - --previously earned reinforcers are removed dependent on instances of misbehavior. reinforcement - --the procedure of providing consequences for behavior that increase or maintain the strength of that behavior What are three criteria that must be met for reinforcement - --behavior must have a consequence, behavior must increase in strength, the strength must be due to consequence positive reinforcement - --behavior is followed by the appearance of, or increase in the intensity of a stimulus positive reinforcer - --any stimulus that increases or maintains the strength of a behavior negative reinforcement - --a behavior is strengthened by the removal of, or a decrease in the intensity of, a stimulus negative reinforcer - --any stimulus that when removed, increases or maintains the strength of that behavior escape training - --another term for negative reinforcement Positive reinforcement ____ something, and negative reinforcement _____ something. - --adds, subtracts What is the difference between escape and avoidance - --In escape, an organism's response terminates an aversive stimulus. In avoidance, the response produces no immediate consequence. discrete trial procedure - --performance of a behavior ends the trial free operant procedure - --the behavior may be repeated numerous times The difference between Pavlovian and Operant learing - --Pavlovian: a US is contingent on a CS operant: a stimulus is contingent on behavior operant conditioning involves _____ behavior - --voluntary T/F. Can Pavlovian and Operant conditioning occur together? - --True primary reinforcers - --any reinforcer that is not dependent on another reinforcer for its reinforcing properties secondary reinforcers/conditioned reinforcer - --any reinforcer that has acquired its reinforcing properties though its association with another reinforer T/F primary reinforcers lose their value quickly - --True Generalized reinforcers - --any secondary reinforcer that has been paired with several other reinforcers shaping - --the procedure of reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior five factors for effective shaping - --small steps, immediate reinforcement, small reinforcers, reinforce best approximation, back up when needed behavior chain - --a series of related behaviors, the last produces reinforcement chaining - --establishing a behavior train task analysis - --identifying the component elements of a behavior chain forward chaining - --training begins with the first link in the chain and adds links in order backward chaining - --training begins with the last link and adds preceding links in reverse order contingency - --the degree of correlation between the behavior and its consequence factors related to effective reinforcement - --size, type, task characteristics, deprivation level, extinction (operant) - --withholding the consequences that reinforce behavior extinction burst - --a sudden increase in the rate of behavior during extinction resurgence - --the reappearance of previously reinforced behavior extinction depends on these factors - --rate of reinforcement, effort required, size of reinforcer used extinction and reinforcement are different how - --one non-reinforcement does not cancel out one reinforcement drives (hull) - --a motivational state caused by deprivation Drive-reduction theory - --attributes a reinforcer's effectiveness to the reduction of a drive T/F. Studies demonstrate that operant learning is as effective with involuntary behavior, such as the salivary reflex, as it is with voluntary behavior. - --False T/F. With reinforcement, it is easy for a person to lower his or her blood pressure. - --False T/F. Reprimands, restraint, captivity, and electrical shocks can be reinforcers. - --True T/F. Chaining is a useful procedure for shaping behavior in laboratory animals, but it does not appear to be important in shaping the behavior of wildlife. - --False T/F. According to Skinner, people are rewarded, but behavior is reinforced. - --True Allison's boyfriend teased her a lot about her curly hair. Allison hated this and decided that every time her boyfriend made remarks about her hair she would respond with a mean comment about his school grades. As a result, Allison's boyfriend teased her more often about her hair than he did before. - --Yes, this is an example of positive reinforcement. Jerry was a mentally handicapped boy who was learning sign language. His teacher would show Jerry a picture of a person doing something, such as running or swimming. When Jerry made the correct sign for the action shown in the picture, his teacher would give him a small drink of soft drink or some raisins. As a result, Jerry made the correct signs for the pictures more often than he did before. - --Yes, this is an example of positive reinforcement. Marvin had learned his multiplication tables very well by the time the school year ended. However, during the summer he spent his time playing baseball with his buddies and had no opportunities to practise multiplication. When school started again in the fall, Marvin could only do 50% of the problems correctly, while before he had been able to do solve the problems correctly 100% of the time. - --No, this is not an example of extinction Doris had moved to a small town where the people often gossiped about the affairs of others. She enjoyed talking to the townsfolk, but whenever they started to gossip, Doris would pay no attention and she would go about her business. As a result, the townspeople seldom gossiped to Doris. - --Yes, this is an example of extinction. Thelma was learning to get ready for school by herself. This involved getting dressed, washing her hands and face, brushing her teeth, and coming to the kitchen for breakfast. When Thelma arrived in the kitchen dressed, washed, and brushed, her mother gave her 10 points on a large chart stuck to the refrigerator. These points could be exchanged for special treats and privileges. - --Not Shaping Tilly's mom was teaching her the names of body parts. Tilly's mom would point to her nose and say "Where is your nose?" If Tilly pointed to her nose, Tilly's mom would give her a big hug. After Tilly accomplished this, Tilly's mom would just ask Tilly the question and wouldn't point any more. If Tilly pointed to her nose when asked "Where is your nose?" Tilly got a big hug. On each trial, Tilly was required to engage in the same behavior, although sometimes to different cues provided by her mother. - --Not Shaping Garth hated commercials on television. He was delighted when he acquired his new remote control device that allowed him to change the channel whenever a commercial began. It wasn't long before Garth was able to use his remote control so effectively that he could change the channel within a half- second of the beginning of the commercial. - --An example of escape Dr. Arnold decided to tackle this problem through a pre-surgery contract that prospective patients had to sign. This contract specified that any time a patient failed to complete his or her daily physiotherapy, he or she had to undergo one-half hour of electroshock therapy on that day. Once the patients were receiving the electroshock therapy, they had to complete the entire electroshock session. Dr. Arnold was delighted when, as a result of this procedure, most of his patients were conscientious and did their own physiotherapy after an average of only one or two electroshock sessions. - --An example of avoidance Pavlov began his research on the - --digestive system and salivary reflex of dogs What were the psychic secretions that became a focus of Pavlov's work? - --The dog salivating before entering the lab unconditional reflexes - --largely inborn and usually permanent reflex found in all members of a species conditioned reflexes - --a reflex acquired through Pavlovian conditioning and consists of a conditional stimulus and a conditional response a neutral stimulus - --does not elicit a particular conditioned or unconditioned response conditioned response - --the response elicited by a conditional stimulus unconditioned response - --the response elicited by a unconditioned stimulus unconditional stimulus - --the stimulus that elicits an unconditional response conditional stimulus - --the stimulus that elicits a conditional response The CS and the US are presented - --regardless of what the organism does higher-order conditioning - --the procedure of pairing a neutral stimulus with a well-established CS Why is higher-order conditioning important to Pavlovian conditioning? - --it means many stimuli can elicit conditional responses Many of our emotional reactions appear to be acquired through - --higher-order conditioning second-order conditioning - --CS (CS-0) predicts another previously established CS (CS-1). What are the limitations to stimulus substitution theory? - --the CR and UR are not always the same; the CR is sometimes opposite of UR preparatory response theory - --the CR prepares the organism for the occurrence of the US What prediction does preparatory response theory make regarding the conditional stimuli involved in the development of tolerance to drugs? - --an organism prepares for drugs by suppressing the body's response to it (some aspects of the setting become CSs for reduced responses) The first person to study human emotions systematically was - --John B Watson conditioned emotional responses - --an emotional response to a stimulus that is acquired through Pavlovian conditioning. Phobias are among the most common - --behavior problems Little Albert B. - --Pavlov and Rayner established his fear to a white rat counterconditioning - --the use of Pavlovian procedures to reverse unwanted effects of conditioning First to study counterconditioning - --Mary Cover Jones Peter - --Mary Cover Jones established counterconditioning to his fear of rabbits Systematic desensitization - --the person is engaged in some type of relaxation exercise and gradually exposed to an anxiety producing stimulus In vivo desensitization - --similar to systematic desensitization except that real feared stimuli, rather than imagined stimuli, are presented conditioned suppression - --the reduction in the rate of ongoing behavior due to exposure to an aversive CS Describe how Staats and Staats (1958) examined the development of ethnic prejudices due to Pavlovian conditioning - --statements that pair emotionally charged words with a particular group of people likely affect our feelings towards members of those groups. how does advertising use Pavlovian conditioning? - --they make objects arouse positive feelings to increase their sales or use negativity to decrease competitor sales Identify the US, the UR, the CS, and the CR in Stuart's study of toothpaste advertising - --scenes (US), positive feelings (UR), toothpaste (CS), buying the toothpaste (CR) Paraphilia - --incorrect love (voyeurism, rape, sadism) If aversive stimuli are paired with pleasurable sexual stimulation, the aversive stimuli might - -- become sexually arousing aversion therapy - --a form of counterconditioning in which a CS is paired with an aversive US explain how Maletzky (1980) treated exhibitionism - --he had the patient imagine an inappropriate behavior and paired it with an extremely unpleasant odor conditioned taste aversion - --an aversion to foods with a particular flavor In what two ways did Garcia's taste aversion study with rats differ from standard demonstrations of Pavlovian conditioning - --the CS and US were paired once, and the CS and US were several minutes apart. How do most people acquire conditioned taste aversions? - --illness following eating How might it be possible to boost immune system function through Pavlovian conditioning procedures? - --If a neutral stimulus can be paired with a drug or procedure that facilitates immune functioning, that stimulus might become a CS for conditioned immunofaciliation. Of the following conditioning procedures, the one that is least like the others is _______ conditioning. - --backward. The Watson and Rayner experiment with Little Albert involved the procedure known as - --delayed conditioning Two students, Edward and Nelly, serve as subjects in a conditioning experiment. The CS is a buzzer; the US is a mild electric shock; the UR is a change in electrical conductivity called the Galvanic Skin Response. Both subjects undergo 50 trials, but the experimenter feels sorry for Nelly, so periodically he lets her off without a shock. The results will indicate that - --the CR is stronger in Edward.. Pavlov found that when he paired painful stimuli with food, the dog came to show no distress at the painful stimuli. This experiment may help explain __________ behavior in humans. - --masochistic. In general, the more intense a US, the - --faster conditioning proceeds Each time a buzzer sounds, a puff of air makes a rabbit blink. Soon the rabbit blinks when it hears the buzzer. George believes that this means the buzzer takes the place of the air puff. Doris disagrees with George. She believes that the rabbit's response to the buzzer prepares it for the puff of air. Doris is an advocate of - --preparatory response theory