Psychological Assessment and Treatment of Children, Exams of Developmental Psychology

Download Psychological Assessment and Treatment of Children and more Exams Developmental Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! 1 / 19 Developmental Psychopathology Midterm 1 Exam With 100% Correct Answers 2025 1. Define Abnormality: 2.Characteristics of Abnormal Behavior: 1) Statistical Deviance: based on whats extreme compared to the norm; some things that are rare aren't always psy- chopathology 2)Violation of Social Norms: violates rules of society; our social norms are influenced by our biases so we should question whether or not we should be using social norms when thinking of psychopathology 3)Disability/Functional Impairment: is the behavior causing distress or functional impairment (loss of functional capacity that affects a person's ability to work) 4)Personal Distress: unpleasant feelings or emotions that impact one's level of functioning; is the behavior causing distress 3.5 Core Principles of Developmental Psychopathology: *1)* The study of nor- mal development informs the study of abnormal development and vice versa. It is crucial to understand behavior in the context of development. *2)* Psychopathology encompasses deviation from pathways of normal develop- ment. How does development go awry? *3)* Study of behavioral and emotional disorders reveals both continuities with and discontinuities from normal developmental pathways *4)* Despite the strong biological and genetic underpinnings of mental disorders, the contexts through which behavior develops play an essential role in pathology. These forces interact to produce health or pathology *5)* Multiple levels of analysis are needed to understand the development of psy- 2 / 19 chopathology: genes and brains all the way to cultures. Finally, these various levels influence one another reciprocally, across time, in a process called *transaction* 4.Critical Period: -developmental period during which people are uniquely (only) sensitive to certain environmental inputs ex) spoken language exposure during early childhood 5.Sensitive Period: -developmental period during which people are more sensitive to certain environmental inputs ex) prenatal drug exposure, abuse in early childhood 6.Risk: -are variables that precede a negative outcome and increase the chances that the outcome will occur ex) chronic poverty, parental mental illness, community disasters, family breakup, pregnancy and birth complications 7.Risk Factor: -agent or characteristic of individual or environment that is related increased probability of negative outcome -a variable that precedes a negative outcome of interest and increases the chances that the outcome will occur 8.Hierarchy of Risk Factors: 1) Correlate: if risk factor simply associated with outcome at single point in time 2)Risk Factor: correlate that precedes an outcome 3)Causal Risk Factor: manipulation of the risk factor changes outcomes 9.Protective factor: -variables that reduce the chances of a child developing a disorder ex) social support, nutrition/access to health care, parental psychological healt 10.Resilience: -dynamic process wherein individuals display positive adaptation despite experiences of significant adversity -refers to a process of positive adaptation in presence of risk -may be the result of individual factors, environmental factors, or the 5 / 19 -central component of the brain's neuroendocrine response to stress -CRH > ACTH > Cortisol -researchers are discovering that this important feedback loop, which regulates our level of arousal and apprehension, can be seriously disrupted or damaged by various traumatic and uncontrollable events -can cause a child/adolescent to maintain a state of fear or alertness that becomes toxic over prolonged periods of time 24.Emotion Reactivity: -refers to individual differences in the threshold and inten- sity of emotional experience, which provide clues to an individual's level of distress and sensitivity in the environment -are ways in which infants and young children first communicate with the world around them, and their ability to regulate these emotions as they adapt is a critical aspect of their early relationships with caregivers 25.Emotion Regulation: -enhancing, maintaining, or inhibiting emotional arousal, which is usually done for a specific purpose or goal -children's emotion regulation abilities, as often shown by their emotion reactivity and expression, are important signals of normal and abnormal development 26.Family and Peer Context: -*family systems* theorists argue that it is difficult to understand or predict the behavior of a particular family member, such as a child in isolation from other family members -manner in which the family as a unit deals with typical and atypical stress plays an instrumental role in children's adjustment and adaptation -disruption and impairment interferes with children's ongoing development to such an extent that their ability to manage stress and form satisfactory relationships with peers, teachers, and other adults cascade into lifelong psychological difficulties 27.Categorical System of Diagnosis: -major framework in developmental psy- 6 / 19 chopathology -disorders are viewed to be discrete categories -DSM-V: outlines diagnoses and associated criteria -someone who has that disorder is fundamentally different than someone who does not *Advantages* -synthesis of info -aids in communication *Disadvantages* -people/children often do not fit into categories 28.Dimensional System of Diagnosis: -independent traits or dimensions of be- havior exist -people are high or low on those dimensions -present in everyone to varying degrees *Advantages* -allows us to retain valuable information -provides a measure of severity *Disadvantages* -becomes very complicated very quickly -hard to communicate findings, to consolidate extant work 29.Correlates: -refer to variables that are associated at a particular point in time with no clear proof that one precedes the other -ex) Whitney having no friends is associated with her sadness. Is she sad because she has no friends, or has her sadness prevented her from making friends? Since we don't know which variable came first, her lack of friends and her sadness are correlated variables 30.Reliability: -the degree to which a measurement obtained using the same 7 / 19 technique is consistent, for example, over time or across assessors (consistency or repeatability of results obtained using a specific method or measure- ment) 31.Internal Consistency: -refers to whether all parts of a method of measurement contribute in a meaningful way to the information obtained 32.Interrater Reliability: -information must also not depend on a single observer or clinician; various people must agree on what they see 33.Test-Retest Reliability: -tests or interviews repeated within a short time interval should yield similar results on the two occasions 34.Validity: -the degree to which a technique measures what it is designed to measures -is not all or none but rather a matter of degree, and it can be assessed in many ways 35.Face Validity: -the extent to which it appears to asses the construct of interest -ex) a questionnaire that asks whether you get nervous before taking an exam would be a face-valid measure of test anxiety 36.Construct Validity: -refers to whether scores on a measure behave as predicted by theory or past research -ex) a test of intelligence has this kind of validity if children who obtain high scores on test also have better grades in school, understanding concepts, etc 37.Convergent Validity: -reflects the correlation between measures that are ex- pected to be related -ex) a teen's report of her depression in a screening interview and her scores on a depression questionnaire -it is an indication of the extent to which the two measures assess similar or related constructs, in this case, depression. 38.Discriminant Validity: -refers to the degree of correlation between measures that are not expected to be related to one another 10 / factors associated with a child's disorder -typically viewed as unscientific and flawed -they provide a source for developing and trying out new treatment methods 52.Single-Case Experimental Designs: -most frequently been used to evaluate the impact of clinical treatment, such as reinforcement or stimulant medication on a child's problem -central features: systematic repeated assessment of behavior over time, the repli- cation of treatment effects within the same subject over time, and the participants serving as his or her control by experiencing all treatment conditions 53.Cross-Sectional Design: -type of correlational study -measuring people at one point in time and examining how two or more factors co-vary (go together) 54.Longitudinal Designs: -type of correlational study -measuring people at multiple points in time to examine whether one factor predicts change in another factor; also referred to as a prospective longitudinal design 55.Informed Consent: -requires that all participants be fully informed of the nature of the research- as well as the risks, benefits, expected outcomes, and alternatives- before they agree to participate -includes informing participants of the option to withdraw from the study at any time 56.Informed Assent: -child shows some form of agreement to participate without necessarily understanding the full significance of the research, which may be beyond younger children's cognitive capabilities -obtaining assent around age of 7 or older 57.Purpose of Assessment: *Clinical* -to diagnose -plan for treatment 11 / -monitor treatment and progress *Research* -epidemiology -determining correlates -assessing predictors and outcomes -examining interventions 58.Structured Interview: -questions are fixed and interviewer has almost no flexi- bility -can be administered by computer -more reliable and valid than unstructured *Disadvantages* -length: can take two or more to administer -training time -can sometimes get in the way of rapport building 59.Semi-structured Interview: -interviewer has a lot of latitude in asking the questions -clinical judgement involved in determining when a symptom is present -more reliable and valid than unstructured *Disadvantages* -length: can take two or more to administer -training time -can sometimes get in the way of rapport building 60.Unstructured Interviews: -clinician asks questions and arrive at a diagnosis -most clinicians use this approach, and many rely on it entirely *Challenges* -it's less comprehensive and clinicians tend to make diagnostic decisions before they have collected all of the relevant information 61.Behavioral Assessment: -is a strategy for evaluating the child's thoughts, feel- 12 / ings, and behaviors in specific settings, and then using this information to formulate hypotheses about the nature of the problem and what can be done about it -involves observing the child's behavior directly, rather than inferring how children think, behave, or feel on the basis of their descriptions of inkblots or the pictures they draw 62.Target Behaviors: -primary problems of concern with the goal of then determin- ing what specific factors may be influencing these behaviors 63.Checklists and Rating Scales: -questions about behaviors and feelings -are shorter (<20 mins to complete) and require no interviewer -evidence suggest that they yield comparable diagnoses and perform just as well for researchers who are measuring symptoms 64.Using Informants in Assessment: -use of rating scales and interviews rely on someone's report of their symptoms -those who give reports of someone's symptoms (i.e. parents, children, teachers) -often do not degree, correlations from .2-.4 -different informants provide reliable and valid reports -significant discrepancies across informants can reveal high levels of conflict, which in itself can be helpful for treatment planning 65.Naturalistic Observation: -occur in child's natural environment (ex: classroom, home) -provides rich information about what happens prior and after behavior -ABCs, antecendent-behavior-consequence 66.Structured Observation: -laboratory- or clinic-based -designed to see children's response to a task or situation (ex: provocation by another peer) 67.Behavioral Observation and Recording: -since some children are not old enough or skilled enough to report on their own behavior, parents, teachers or 15 / ones, to teach the child to use both cognitive and behavioral coping strategies in specific situations, and help the child learn to regulate their behavior 78.Client-Centered Treatment Approach: -this approach views child psy- chopathology as the result of social or environmental circumstances that are im- posed on the child and interfere with their basic capacity for personal growth and adaptive functioning -interference causes child to experience a loss or impairment in self-esteem and emotional well-being -therapist respects child's capacity to achieve his or her goals without the therapist serving as a major adviser or coach 79.Family Treatment Approach: -this approach challenges the view of psy- chopathology as residing only within the individual child and, instead, view child psychopathology as determined by variables operating in the larger family system -view individual child disorders as manifestations of disturbances in family relations -therapist focuses on family interaction, communication, dynamics, contingencies, boundaries, or alliances 80.Neurobiological Treatment Approach: -this approach views child psy- chopathology as resulting from neurobiological impairment or dysfunction and relies primarily on pharmacological and other biological approaches to treatment ex) stimulant medication>ADHD, antipsychotic medication>schizophrenia, prozac>depression 81.Domains of Functioning in Infancy: (birth to 2 years old) 1)Eating 2)Sleep/ Wake Cycle 3)Bonding 4)Motor Development 16 / 5)Communication 82.Developmental Tasks of Infants: -Infant and Toddles: birth to 2 years *Mobility* -crawl, walk, run, jump; use crayon *Relationships and Sense of Self* -in the context of parent-child interactions *Emotions and Emotion Regulation* -experience and recognize basic and self-conscious emotions; learn to regulate own and respond to other's distress *Mastery Motivation* -explore, experiment; "I did it!" *Language* -single words to short sentences, questions 83.Internalizing Disorders - Infants: 1) *Anxiety* -somatic components -withdrawal -school refusal -types (separation anxiety, selective mutism, social phobia, PTSD) 2)*Depression* -somatic complaints -withdrawal -irritability 17 / 84.Externalizing Disorders - Infants: 1) *Aggression* -physical most common -reactive/proactive -hurting animals -extreme difficulty sharing 2) *Impulse control/ ADHD* -difficulty following rules -takes risks -difficulty sitting still 85.Caregiver-Child Relationship: -plays a critical role in this process because it provides the basic setting for children to express emotions and to experience caring guidance and have limits placed on them -authoritative parents establish limits that are both sensitive to the child's individual development and needs and demanding of the children to foster self- control and healthy regulation 86.Infant-Caregiver Attachment: -attachment to primary caregivers: most impor- tant is the 1st year of life; caregiver's responsiveness to child's cues key: -consistent parental responsiveness: secure child attachment -inconsistent or non-responsive parenting: insecure child attachment 87.Ego-syntonic: -consistent with sense of self, part of/inseparable from the self -harder to treat -ex: somatic complaints, externalizing 88.Ego-dystonic: -inconsistent with sense of self, separable from the self -easier to treat -ex: anxiety, depression 20 / -4 in 10,000 (.04%) "old rate" -Most recent CDC is 1 in 68 (1.5%) -Due to better identification and broader definitions of ASD *Cultural and Contextual Differences* -Present cross-culturally and cross-nationally -Found at all income levels -Males are more likely to have it 97.Etiology of ASD: -genetics -Can be identified around age 2, average age of diagnosis is around 4 -Some children display problems since birth -Some children seem to lose early developmental milestones 98.Assessment of ASD: *Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS)* -Semi-structured observation -Examiner interacts with child in a series of situations and tasks -Designed to assess social interaction, communication, play and interests -Presses: -A certain pattern behavior is likely to occur -We know that children with autism are likely to behave a certain way -Unstructured presentation of toys 99.Treatment of ASD: 100. Anxiety Etiology: *Genetics* -Children of parents with anxiety disorder are about 5x more likely to have an anxiety disorder than children whose parents do not have anxiety disorders -Twin studies -33% of variability is genetic -Note that identical twins often do not have the same type of anxiety problems 21 / *Environment* -Parents demonstrate anxious responses to children -Seeing someone else shoq fear may cause a child to develop fear -Being constantly told something is dangerous can make you fear it -Parents try to control children's thoughts and feelings or are overly controlling children's behaviors -Expect children to have difficulty or not be able to cope 101. Anxiety Maintenance: 102. Relationship b/t Arousal and Performance: 103. Evolutionary Adaptive Function of Fear: -through evolution we adapted to situations that could be harmful for our survival -(ex. stranger anxiety in young children) 104. Difference b/t Fear and Anxiety: 105. Fear: An alarm reaction to current danger or life-threatening emergencies; marked by strong escape-oriented tendencies and a surge in the sympathetic nervous system 106. Anxiety: A mood state characterized by strong negative affect, bodily symptoms of tension, and apprehensive anticipation of future danger or misfortune 107. Function of Avoidance: Avoidance behavior maintained through operant con- ditioning -Avoidant behavior provides relief from anxiety -That is a powerful reinforcer (negative reinforcement -Avoidant behavior increases 108. Anxiety and Classical Conditioning: 109. Etiology of Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): 22 / 110. Obsessions: -Recurrent, persistent thoughts, impulses or images that are experienced as intrusive, inappropriate and that cause marked anxiety or distress -These thoughts are not simply excessive worries about real life problems -The person attempts to ignore or suppress the thoughts or to neutralize them with another thought or actions Common Examples: -Contamination -Harm to self or others -Symmetry 111. Compulsions: -Repetitive behaviors or mental acts that the person feels dri- ven to perform in response to an obsession, or according to rules that must be applied rigidly -The behaviors or mental acts are aimed at preventing or reducing distress or preventing some dreaded events or situations; however these behaviors or mental acts wither are not connected in a realistic way with what they are designed to neutralize or they are clearly excessive Common Examples: -Counting -Checking -Washing 112. Treatment of OCD/Anxiety: -Exposure therapy -Facing feared "stimuli" -Gradually 25 / -Found significant difference in sadness Findings: -*Found that physically abused children needed less information to accurately identify angry faces than control children* -Physically abused children needed more information than control children to identify sad faces -No difference in fearful and happy faces 118. Child Maltreatment and Epidemiology: Challenges of studying incidence: and prevalence of child abuse -*Reporting bias* (People may not be willing to report this) -*Retrospective report* (A lot of studies are completed by asking adults to report what they experienced as children) *One-year incidence rates* -In the US 12.1/1000 children -In Canada 9.7/1000 children -U.S has higher rates of poverty and it is much harder to get access to health care -Responding anonymously, 10% of parents report using forms of physical punish- ment that constitute child abuse *Demographic characteristics* Age: -Younger children are more likely to be neglected -Older children (>12 years) are more likely to sexually abused Gender: 26 / -Girls are more likely to be sexually abused -Abused by male family members 119. Types of Neglect: -Child's basic needs are not being met -*Physical neglect* (Food, refusal of health care, inadequate supervision) -*Educational neglect* (Not putting a child of mandatory age in school, not attending special education needs) -*Emotional neglect* (Failure to attend to child's emotional needs, refusal or failure to provide needed psychological care) 120. Types of Abuse: *Physical Abuse* -Using your body or an object to harm a child -Punching, beating, kicking, shaking or otherwise physically harming child -Can be used for disciplining a child (spanking) -Often unintentional and resulting from severe physical punishment *Emotional Abuse* -Repeated acts by parents or caregivers that could or have caused serious behav- ioral, cognitive, emotional or mental disorder -Note that all abuse will cause emotional harm 121. Sexual Abuse and Exploitation: Touching genitals, intercourse exhibitionism, production of pornographic photos, etc. 122. Characteristics of Children Who Suffer Maltreatment: 1) Long term changes in physiological reactivity to stress 2) Difference in understanding emotion 123. Treatment of PTSD: *Trauma Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy* -Cognitive techniques -Relaxation skills 27 / -Safety skills -Graded EXPOSURE -Create a trauma narrative -Very detailed and graphic -Gradually read and share -May also need to do exposure around trauma cues -Psychoeducation -Prevalence rates of trauma -Typical reactions to stress -Many children have transient symptoms