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A comprehensive overview of key concepts and theories in psychology, covering topics such as therapeutic alliance, types of therapy, insight therapy, behavior therapy, freudian psychology, non-freudian psychodynamic therapies, humanistic therapies, cognitive therapies, behavior therapies, cognitive behavioral therapy, drug therapy, stress vs distress, causes of stress, coping strategies, and health and longevity. It includes detailed explanations of various therapeutic approaches, stress management techniques, and the impact of psychological factors on health and well-being.
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therapeutic alliance - mutual respect between therapist and client/patient, you need to believe the person is there to help you; key to all forms of therapy types of therapy - MD PhD PsyD EdD MD - can prescribe medicine PhD - clinical science that is based on research PsyD - 4 years or longer; focused on practice, degree focused on practice EdD - educators, work with students in school, but also do therapy insight therapy - thinking you into acting different; trying to help you gain insights into reasons for things so that you can change your behavior behavior therapy - acting you into thinking differently; trying to change behavior; change behavior --> change feeling Freudian psychology - physiological problems come from tensions between unconscious mind by forbidden impulses and threatening memories probing the unconscious: assuming there is a hidden meaning that you are not aware of, which is below conscious level of thought dream analysis and interpretation: ways to analyze subconscious Non-Freudian Psychodynamic Therapies - Self/Ego over Id: original focus was on who you are rather than your urges, but Freudian suggests urges are more important Life over early experiences: focus on what is going on right now not what is in the past interpersonal over sexual/aggressive desires: focusing now more on relationships, less on underlying sexual urges a person may or may not have Humanistic Therapies - self concept and self esteem: believe mental problems arise from low self esteem client centered: (Carl Rodgers); healthy psychological growth through self actualization reflection of feeling success factors: empathy, positive regard, genuineness, feedback) Cognitive Therapies - therapies aimed at influencing people's thinking; how to think; changing it from Erroneous to Rational thinking
Behavior Therapies - based on principles of behavioral learning; types: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, participant modeling Types of Classical Conditioning Therapies - Counterconditioning Systematic desensitization exposure therapy aversion therapy Counterconditioning (Classical Conditioning) - Mary C. Jones counter conditioned Peter to not be afraid by rabbits after pairing the rabbits with ice- cream Systematic Desensitization - Joseph Wolpe get to relax while thinking of what you are afraid of, while imagining it; substituting one response such as fear, with another; made hierarchy of fears --> then teach individual method of relaxing --> individual relaxes while imagining the fear in order to condition them to associate the thing they are afraid of (scene or event) with relaxation --> the thing they were scared of no longer induces anxiety Exposure Therapy - exposing the person to the fear; in vivo exposure: exposing the person to the actual thing they are afraid of; explosive therapy: exaggerating the fear (imagining it is worse than it actually is); based on classical conditioning; getting the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus you get extinction (you scare someone but the stimulus does not occur = not scared) aversion therapy - therapy for when you want someone to stop doing something so you get them to associate it with something bad; if you are addicted to alcohol, or drugs, pairing it with an aversive stimuli helps stop the addiction Types of Operant Conditioning - contingency management token economies contingency management - a connection between behavior and consequence, changing behavior by altering consequences; set it up so that doing what they want is contingent on them doing what you want them to do (example: a kid can only play video games if they have been good in school) token economies - use a consequence for behavior; a system of contingency management based on the systematic reinforcement of target behavior, the reinforcement are symbols or "tokens" that can be exchanged for other reinforcers; used in a group setting participant modeling - observational learning - shown a particular object should not be feared; modeling the desired behavior; therapist demonstrates and encourages client to imitate desired behavior
cognitive behavioral therapy types - rational-emotive therapy positive psychotherapy mental first aid cognitive behavioral therapy - combines techniques of cognitive therapy and behavioral therapy rational-emotive therapy - Albert Ellis (1987) some people have very irrational assumptions; people have to like you, you have to be successful in all respects --> catastrophic when things do not go the way you like therapy that is designed to identify and target irrational thoughts that can be harmful to think positive psychotherapy - Martin Seligman (2006) psychologists have been preoccupied with psychological illnesses and when things go wrong but we should also focus on happiness and resilience in people; new field of studying happiness (money does not make people happier); doing things that make you happier (count your blessings to increase gratitude mental first aid - what you can do everyday to be healthier and happier; active listening, non-judgemental, acceptance, explore other alternatives drug therapy (psychosurgery and brain stimulation - a last resort behavior - if you can define the problems in terms of behavior, then behavior therapy can help but you need to have the right attitude towards the therapy sensation perception - biology of how you sense and perceive info from the world basic ID - behavior, attitude, sensation, imagery, cognition, interpersonal, drugs Stress vs Distress - Stress is GOOD; positive stress Distress is BAD; bad stress environmental event - primary appraisal - either (1) noticed and accepted, important or (2) unnoticed, denied harmless If (2) no stressor If (1) stressor and a secondary appraisal Secondary Appraisal If 1 (no control/distress) - distress with burnout/exhaustion or destructive behavior If 2 (in control/stress) - motivating energy and or constructive safe behavior perception of control is the difference between stress and distress
causes of stress - traumatic stressors chronic stressors traumatic stressor - trauma is the cause of stress prefer the word "distress" because the person has no control types of traumatic stressors - vicarious traumatization collectivism vs individualism humiliation PTSD vicarious traumatization - when someone else's bad experience/trauma affects you collectivism vs individualism - increased sense of community --> vicarious trauma increases humiliation - can be a severe cause of stress Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) - one popular approach to deal with this - Exposure Therapy (try to relive the experience until it does not elicit the stressed reaction) Chronic Stressors - keep happening over and over again types of chronic stressors - work stress workload, control, and rewards community, fairness, and values compassion fatigue vs compassion satisfaction daily hassles work stress: burnout vs engagement - causes of work stress: lack of choice, conflict with other employees, lack of support, difficult work environment, responsibility for others, role ambiguity community, fairness and values - sense of community can decrease stress equity theory- how you perceive your input/contributions and the output, and you compare yourself with other people - what I give and what I get (is it fair, balanced or am I satisfied) a perception of fairness affects motivation dispositional differences between people -if you are benevolent then you feel better when your output is greater than your input; when you give more than what you get (self-transcendence) entitled = you get more than others equity sensitive = input equals output
compassion fatigue vs compassion satisfaction - compassion fatigue: when people care too much for others and neglect their own needs and suffer because of it compassion satisfaction: A sense of appreciation felt by a caregiver, medical or psychological professional, of the work he or she does General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) - how long term stress affects a person over time; when you are exposed to a stressor, there is a psychological change ; when there is an alarm there is an arousal --> arousal decrease and resistance increases; resistance --> exhaustion; fight or flight response - how you act when exposed to a stressor; (1) alarm phase: general arousal caused by an increase in adrenal hormones, reaction of sympathetic nervous system (2) Resistance Phase: Second phase, during which the body adapts to and maintains resources to cope with stressor (3) Exhaustion: powerful parasympathetic response opposes arousal tend and befriend: females inclined to nurture and protect offspring cognitive appraisal: is it an important stressor?; are you in control?; appraisal involved in stress; perceived control = stress; out of control = distress dispositional factors - Type A Personality and Hostility: Type A - always on the go; if you are Type A and hostile you have a greater chance of negative outcomes Type B- enjoy the environment they are in Locus of Control Internal vs External -you have a lot of stressors in your life, but if you maintain the belief that you have control it won't become distress -internal: if I study, I will get good grades -external: outside factors that effect their grades Health and Longevity Learned Helplessness -when stressors over a long period of time get the best of you and you give up Hardiness -people who accept life as a challenge and opportunity -challenge, commitment, control Optimism and Resilience: expecting the best -optimism: not associated with the action to bring things about -hope: it is not wishful thinking and planning and doing things to make the positive result come about; hope for the best, will do anything possible to make it happen -optimism: wishful thinking Coping Strategies - Negative to Positive Stress
Emotion-Focused vs. Problem-Focused Cognitive Restructuring Social Comparison (downward and upward) Meaningfulness Psychological Debriefing Social Support and Positive Reinforcement Exercise Negative (distress) to Positive Stress - changing perceptions of control Emotion-Focused vs. Problem-Focused - realization that sometimes the stressor is the emotions we need to focus on the problem Cognitive Recognition - cognitively reappraising stressors with the goal of seeing them from a less stressful perspective recognize the thoughts you have about the stressor that cause anxiety, and challenge yourself to see the situation in a more realistic manner changing the way you think about things -election -getting fired: see it as an opportunity to get a new job social comparison (upward vs. downward) - people evaluate their own outcome by comparing themselves to others downward: compare yourself to someone with a worse situation to realize that you are in a better position upward: comparison between you and someone in the same situation - you learn how they cop e meaningfulness - sense of making and benefit making sometimes the challenge is to make sense of the stressor - how can you turn it around and make sense of it? psychological debriefing - brief immediate strategy focusing on the venting and discussing of reactions to trauma catharsis: I can feel better by shouting/doing other things - but this can also fuel more anger -theory suggests emotional pressure can be relieved by expressing feelings directly or indirectly social support and positive reinforcement - getting support from others
Subjective Well Being (SWB) - community- connection to other people choice- ability to choose competence- belief you are good at something that is worthwhile biological- biology influences influences how you feel behavioral- it is well known that your feelings can influence how you behave cognitive- same goes for thoughts attributions - process by which individuals explain the causes of behavior and events; assumption of why a person acts a certain way attribution theory - study of models to explain those processes fundamental attribution error - when evaluating other people's behaviors, we tend to overestimate individual trait factors; when evaluating ourselves, we tend to overestimate situational factors example: the person who cuts us off in traffic did it because they are a jerk but if we do it it was because we were in a rush or attribute it to some other situational factor central attitude - intervening on strong, personal beliefs peripheral attitudes - attempts to change attitude by intervening on beliefs that are not strong self serving bias - we tend to attribute things that go poorly to the situational factors or other things, but if we do something well we attribute it to ourselves in group favoritism/out of group favoritism - we tend to favor people we like group serving bias - we tend to favor groups we are like proximity and similarity - we tend to favor those who are closer to us or more similar stereotypes, prejudices, and discrimination - stereotypes: ideas that a certain group will have even if they may not be true prejudices: judgement we make before having the information discrimination: making a judgement; negative action stemming from stereotypes Halo Effect - tendency to make assumption about a person based on one characteristic Attitudes - cognitive component: beliefs/info affect/evaluation: likes, dislikes, and emotions behavior: intention to act who you are is influenced by your behavior
sometimes, we act outside of our values --> cognitive dissonance (behavior doesn't match our morals/values) Self Persuasion is Key to Long Term Behavior Change - (1) Self Persuasion is defined by self-directive behavior (2) More outside control, less inside control -if you do something for a grade, you don not have internal control (3) more obvious external control, less self-persuasion (4) mild threats influence more persuasion (5) large incentives can hinder self-persuasion (6) perceived choice enhances self-persuasion (7) perceived choice is greater when working to achieve success than when working to avoid failure 7 Principles of Social Influence - Consistency Reciprocity Ingratiation Conformity Authority Scarcity Novelty Consistency - once we have an impression it influences what new information we do or do not pay attention to, and how we interpret it (a) we resist change (b) we act ourselves into thinking something and vice versa (c) we honor public, active, and voluntary commitment cognitive dissonance vs self-perception -self perception: observe behavior and inferring attitude based how we've acted -cognitive dissonance: when our behavior does not match your values example: "Now that we're feeding cute animals little animals together, how about a kiss? (Consistency because they were already doing something together) "The wine is expensive, but let's go for it" (said bc guy who's dressed up nicely and has waited awhile) (Consistency - commitment/foot in the door) reciprocity - the tendency to return the way a person has acted towards you (a) we return favors (b) we are more likely to comply after retreating example: "Will I marry you? Are you kidding? That was out first date!" "Well how about spending the night?" (Door in the Face) "Now that I've bought you dinner twice, how about letting me spend the night?"
ingratiation - the extent to which you match the person you are talking to may determine how much they listen to you (a) we are attracted to similarities (b) we look for those who praise us and cooperate (c) we actively care for people we like descriptive norm: what people do injunctive norm: what people should do self monitoring: changing how you act or what you say, based on the situation; saying what you think people want to hear example: Guy telling girl she looks great conformity - (a) we follow those who are similar and credible (b) we model most in unfair situations example: "Hey! Look at them doing it" authority - (a) we follow authority blindly and mindlessly (b) we follow those with credibility Example: Milgram Experiment -65% of people willing to administer electric shocks that hurt another person because a person in a white lab coat told them too (Stanford Prison Study - Zimbaro) scarcity - influence people by conveying something is rare (a) we react to protect our individually (b) we value rare opportunities (c) we are motivated to avoid loss *psychological reactance: fighting outside influences we believe are infringing on our thoughts and behavior novelty - (a) we habituate the torture (b) we are attentive and attracted to the unique door in the face - making a large irrational statement then making a smaller request that seems more reasonable face in the door - obtaining a small commitment and then going big later ways to fix cognitive dissonance - change behavior justify behavior
change attitude Group Dynamics - social facilitation inhibition social loafing group think polarization risky shift deindividuation social facilitation inhibition - when people watch you perform you do well (Facilitation) when people watch you, you do bad (inhibition) social loafing - occurs when people believe that they can put the responsibility on someone else -if you score something as a team, the overall score is likely lower than if you score each individual then add up group think - what happens when people just follow the group supervisor/coach does not let members speak up and everyone just agrees in a big group, people choose to all agree on the same thing; no one speaks up polarization - when there's a difference when through the issues you become more polarized -democrats vs republicans -in a group, people disagree risky shift - more likely to make riskier decisions in groups; we tend to shift and become more risky when it's a group, because there is less personal responsibility deindivduation - your individual worth decreases individual option does not seem to count frustration aggression hypothesis - when we feel frustrated we are more likely to be aggressive altruism - claimed to be unselfish behavior, helping others without getting anything back -bystander effect (apathy): people watching something bad happen and not doing anything about it because someone else will do it Under which conditions are people more likely to help? -the more people watching the LESS likely people are willing to help (diffusion of responsibility- responsibilities in a group are unclear) AC4P Movement - See Act
Pass Share Worldwide Movement Under which condition are people more likely to help? More people or less people? - The more people they think are watching the less likely they are to help; this is because of diffusion of responsibility IO Psychology - Industrial = job and worker analysis organizational = making the organizational culture work better for people Job Analysis and Selection - Interviewing Dispositional vs. Situational Factors The Big 5: "OCEAN" Performance Appraisals Interviewing - ask every candidate the same question, every candidate answers the same questions in different ways dispositional vs situational - dispositional: relatively constant or permanent personality characteristics The Big 5: OCEAN - the five basic traits that people have (O)penness: to experience (C)onscientiousness: best indicator of getting a job, success in the work place (E)xtroversion/Extrovert: getting energy from people (A)greeable and socialable (N)eurotic: Energy, always moving Type A What is the best predictor of success in college? - Conscientiousness Performance Appraisals - 360 Degree Feedback Halo Effect Contrast Effect 360 Degree Feedback - we learn how to improve from feedback when you reserve feedback from everyone around you Halo Effect - 1 good comment so everything else about you is good Contrast Effect - you do a good job, but the other person is stellar so you look bad trait vs state - trait: with you all of your life state: dependent on your situation
employees are happier when: - supervisors are effective leaders recognized appropriately for individual effort empowered when they set SMART goals condition are comfortable and user friendly coworkers "actively care" and show interdependence they focus on the present with learning from the past and a vision or purpose for the future What does it take to be empowered? - Self Efficacy: Can I do it? Response Efficacy: Will it work? Outcome Efficacy: Is it worth it? SMART(S) Goals - (S)pecific (M)otivational (you recognize the consequences) (A)chievable (R)elevant (T)rackable (S)hare (if you share your goal with someone else, they'll make you accountable for reaching that goal) Affect Attitude at Work - job satisfaction vs burnout fulfillment and intrinsic reinforcement: it is helpful to get satisfaction from achievement itself, rather than rewards hostility and aggression sexual harassment Discretionary Behavior - behavior that you do where no one is holding you accountable expect for you; due to self-motivation organizational citizenship behavior: behavior that is self motivating transformational vs transactional leaders - transformational leaders: inspiring people to go beyond the call of duty transactional leaders: encourages employees behavior through rewards; hold you accountable for what you do Character - prudence, forditude, temperance, justice, courage, humility, integrity, compassion and flexibility compassion is the action of empathy - understanding the person and doing something about it positive vs negative gossip - leaders do not listen to negative gossip psychological factors bias performance appraisals - Leniency Errors: evaluations are inflated to avoid negative confrontation; seeking to avoid confrontation, so you say nice things
Halo Effect: after an initial positive impression, follow up opinions are favorable; a rater thinks highly about one aspect of an employee's job or personality, which leads him or her to provide similar ratings Affective relations: evaluations are influenced by personal feelings towards the individual attributional bias: evaluations biased by presumed degree effort motivation; A and B give you the same effort but A can do so much more, you know A is smarter and can give you A, where B is working to his or her capacity, but they both give you the same product. B gets the better evaluation, A can give me more but they won Visions and Goals for ABC Model - start with a vision (1) given your vision, you feel empowered and set a goal (2) goal setting and empowerment come before behavior; if you are empowered and set a goal, then you know exactly what to do (3) after behavior comes consequence (4) if you do not get a consequence with your behavior then you get extinction Maslow's Revised Hierarchy - the TOP is self-transcendence 4 L's of Motivation - Live Love Learn Leave a Legacy Latane and Darley Model - investigated why no one helped Kitty Geneovise is something wrong? am I needed? should I intervene? what should I do? Cultivating an AC4P Culture - direct approach from cards to wristbands creating a cultural compassion: (C)are, (O)bserve, (A)nalyze, (C)ommunicate, (H)elp (COACH) indirect approach: person-states; 5 Person-States that influence actively caring: self- efficacy, optimism, belongingness, self-esteem, personal control; how to enhance person states: SMARTS Goals and Achieving vs. Avoiding - aiming to achieve more likely to enhance person-state Courage - physical courage: soldiers, police, etc. psychological courage: people who have handicaps are medical conditions
moral courage: having the courage to step to the plate to do something to help our world you can have competence and commitment to act, but you also need courage AC4P Intervention Techniques - The Flash for Life The AC4P Behavior Promise how to give recognition - be timely make it personal make it meaningful deliver privately let it sink in use tangibles for symbolic value use secondhand recognition