QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS SEMESTER 1 EXAM STUDY GUIDE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 2025, Exams of Nursing

Download QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS SEMESTER 1 EXAM STUDY GUIDE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 2025 and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity! 1 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS SEMESTER 1 EXAM STUDY GUIDE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS The Channel in the SMCR is? - ASNWER-The way in which a message is delivered The Receiver in the SMCR is? - ASNWER-The person that gets the message and assigns meaning to the message The Scientific Approach - ASNWER-Is a method which holds a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting/integrating previous knowledge. Research - ASNWER-The scientific way to acquire knowledge Three biased and nonscientific ways of acquiring knowledge are: - ASNWER-1. Personal Experience 2. Intuition 2 3. Authority Personal Experience - ASNWER-Experiencing first hand Intuition - ASNWER-Instinct, going with the gut Authority - ASNWER-Receiving information based on someone else's bias Communication is a field in? - ASNWER-Social Science Communication can be defined as: - ASNWER-"The process by which one person stimulates meaning in the mind/s of another person/people through verbal and nonverbal messages" SMCR - ASNWER-Source --> Message --> Channel --> Receiver The Source in the SMCR is? - ASNWER-The person that creates message The Message in the SMCR is either? - ASNWER-Verbal or Nonverbal Objectivism - ASNWER-Without Bias What two criterion does a "General Rule" need to have in order to be considered empirical? - ASNWER-1. Relevancy 2. Testability 5 Overall, the three things Basic Research could aim to do is: - ASNWER-1. Test theories 2. Solve a contradiction between two theories 3. Elaborate on a theory Overall, Applied Research is designed to: - ASNWER-Solve practical 'real world' society relevant problem What are the two basic research designs? - ASNWER-1. Experimental 2. Correlational Operationalization - ASNWER-The exact operations we use to measure our variables What can be inferred in a correlational design? - ASNWER-An association between two variables What can be inferred in an experimental design? - ASNWER-A causal correlation between two variables In a correlational design the IV and DV are: - ASNWER-both measured In an experimental design the IV and DV are: - ASNWER-The IV is manipulated while the DV is being measured 6 Correlation - ASNWER-As the quantity of one variable changes, the quantity of the other variable changes Positive Correlation - ASNWER-When both variables go up or down (change together) Negative Correlation - ASNWER-When one variable goes up and the other goes down Difference Hypothesis - ASNWER-The researcher determines what the levels of one variable are, are then measures other variable What are the steps of reporting a research? - ASNWER-1. Title 2. Abstract 3. Introduction 4. Method 5. Results 6. Discussion 7. References A "Title" in a research report: - ASNWER-Involves the key theoretical variables, their relationship, and often times a "teaser" (becoming more and more popular). An "Abstract" in a research report: - ASNWER-Is a brief summary of the study which appears at the beginning of the article. It informs about the topic that was investigated, how it was investigated, and the major findings of the study, as well as the theoretical and/ or practical implications of the study's findings. 7 What is the structure of the "Introduction" in a research report? - ASNWER-The formation of this paragraph include: 1. A broad research problem 2. A review of related theories and previous research 3. Proposed theory (general) 4. Proposed hypothesis (more specific) The "Method" in a research report: - ASNWER-Provides a thorough description of the research methods used in the study What are the three subsections the "Method" consists of in a research report? - ASNWER-1. Participants 2. Materials 3. Procedure The "Results" in a research report: - ASNWER-Include a summary of the raw data and the statistical analyses that were done in the study. They do not include any conclusions that are based on the data. But they do include graphs and/or tables. The "Discussion" in a research report: - ASNWER--Begins with a summary of the results of the study, and an evaluation as to whether or not the empirical findings support the original hypotheses. -Presents the theoretical and practical implications of the study's findings. -Compares the findings with past research findings. Similarities and differences are described. 10 In Causation/Causality what three things are a must? - ASNWER--2 variables must covary -Cause must precede the effect -Alternative explanations must be ruled out Time Order - ASNWER-Cause MUST precede effect (The IV must appear prior to DV) In a Random Assignment: - ASNWER-People are randomly assigned, and thus have the same chance, to either be in an experimental or control group. The researchers can assume that the characteristics of the participants in the two groups are roughly the same. In a Random Assignment: Apart from the IV, there should be no systematic difference between the groups - if there is a difference (beyond the IV) it is due to chance. This is called a - ASNWER-Error Variance Why is Random Assignment used as a method? - ASNWER-To prevent or rule out other explanations Manipulation of the IV - ASNWER-The researcher purposely alters or changes the IV to see the alteration has an effect on the DV. He/she creates at least 2 conditions (experimental group and control group) - at least 2 levels of the IV. 11 How does the researcher manipulate the IV when he/she wants to see the manipulation's effect on the DV? - ASNWER-The researcher provides the experimental group a specific stimulus or phenomenon, not giving the same stimulus or phenomenon to the control group What does the researcher rely on when manipulating the IV? (Three options) - ASNWER--Written materials or audio/video records to manipulate the participants -A confederate (someone who is playing along in the experiment) - Hypothetical scenarios and role-playing activities Measurement of the DV (done in three ways) - ASNWER--Self report scales -Observations -Physical measures Controlling the experiment - ASNWER-Making sure that the researcher is examining what he/she intended to examine What are three things that you need to be aware of when controlling the experiment? - ASNWER-1. Threshold Effects 2. Experimenter Effects 3. External Effects 12 Thresholds Effects - ASNWER-When changes in a specific DV are only seen after the IV has reaches a certain level Experimenter Effects - ASNWER-Caused unknowingly by the experimenter on the participants External Effects - ASNWER-Are variables that are not being measured in the study but are affecting the result Mediating Variable - ASNWER--One variable relates to the other and will relate to next Intervening. It answers WHY the IV causes the effect in the DV. Example: Class Attendance --> Material Understanding --> Grade in the test In this case, the "Material Understanding" is the mediating variable Moderating Variable - ASNWER-A variables that affects the strength of the relationship between the IV and the DV. The moderator sets the boundaries of the effect (when is it likely to be stronger? Weaker? Disappear?) The stages of actually conducting an experiment (five): - ASNWER-1. Introducing the experiment to participants and obtaining participants consent 2. Random assignment 15 Examples: -Pulling names out of a hat -Using a computer based program for a random selection What is the process of SRS (Simple Random Sampling)? - ASNWER-Identify population --> Identify sample size --> Random selection Systematic Random Sampling - ASNWER-Probability Method: Similar to simple random sampling, but every "nth" person is selected. It's beneficial as long as there is no systematic order in list Stratified Random Sampling - ASNWER-Probability Method: Dividing the population into strata's (subset of the population that have common characteristics). The researcher then uses Simple Random Sampling in each strata to use in his/her sample. When is Stratified Random Sampling used? - ASNWER-Probability Method: When the population is extremely large. The researcher will then select participants based on the criteria chosen specifically for the study Cluster Sampling - ASNWER-Separating the population into clusters and then randomly choosing a cluster. 16 What are the benefits and drawbacks of cluster sampling? - ASNWER-It's used for large populations, saving money and time. The issue is, however, that participants from the same cluster might be similar to one another, making the sample a lesser representative of the whole population Convenience Sampling - ASNWER-Non-Probability Method: The selection of participants for the sample based on their availability Volunteer Sampling - ASNWER-Non-Probability Method: Participants volunteer to participate to be part of the study sample (often for a reward in exchange for their time) Purposive Sampling - ASNWER-Non-Probability Method: Selecting participants to fulfill or meet a specific purpose the researcher has in mind Netowork Sampling - ASNWER-Non-Probability Method: Asking participants to refer researchers to other people who could serve as participants ("making connections") 17 Sampling Error - ASNWER-Chances of making an error when using a non- probability research method, and more often than when using probability research method What are the 7 (practical) steps of research and research report? - ASNWER- 1. Define the topic (research question) 2. Formulate research hypothesis (theoretical level) 3. Choose appropriate research design (operational level) 4. Identify sampling frame (choose sample) 5. Collect data 6. Summarize findings and analyze data 7. Conclusions and generalizations Research Topic - ASNWER-A novel idea that's considered worth studying and is hoped to be understood better What are the two types of communication research? - ASNWER-1. Basic Research 2. Applied Research What is the nature of the problem in Basic Research? - ASNWER-It seeks to establish general principles regarding communication What is the nature of the problem in Applied Research? - ASNWER-It seeks to understand an important communication problem Measurement - ASNWER-The process of systematic observation and assignment of numbers to phenomena according to rules 20 -Mutually exclusive (not overlap and include all options) -Equivalent (have same values) -Exhaustive (must have a way to categorize participants) Ordinal Scale - ASNWER--Classifies variable into nominal categories but also ranks order -Ability to compare (more/less, 1st/2nd/3rd place) -Provides more info because transforms discrete classifications into ordered classifications Close-ended - ASNWER-Involves answering question that people responded by choosing a number on a scale Open-ended - ASNWER-Ask question and let them answer whatever they want. Content judged by coders and requires coding scheme Behavioral Measures - ASNWER-Recording of behavior that is directly observed. These measures can be either reactive or not (depending on whether people know they are being recorded) What are the three cons of physiological measures? - ASNWER-1. Very expensive 2. Training issues 3. Construct validity issues 21 What are three effective measurement techniques? - ASNWER-1. Questionnaires 2. Interviews 3. Observations (direct, indirect) Sensitivity of Measurement - ASNWER-Ability to capture variation, people are different from each other, prefer to use measurement with more variation (e.g. on a scale of 1-7 instead of a scale of 1-3) What are the cons when addressing the sensitivity of measurement? - ASNWER- Nominal measures are less sensitive and are harder to analyze Multiple Operationalization - ASNWER-Researchers often use multiple operational definitions in the same study What is the disadvantage when addressing multiple operationalization? - ASNWER-Order effect, response on one measure can affect response on other measure. So you can counterbalance on order based on importance Reliability - ASNWER-Consistency of a measure If your measure is reliable: - ASNWER-It will produce the same scores every time it is used What are the pros and cons of observing behavioral measures? - ASNWER-Pros: measurements more accurate, don't know they're recorded Cons: measures might not be sensitive enough, ethical issue, can be more expensive than self- reports 22 Reactive - ASNWER-Knowing that you are being recorded Non-Reactive - ASNWER-Don't know you are being recorded Physiological Measures - ASNWER-Recording bodily responses If your measure is unreliable: - ASNWER-It will generate a different score every time you use it The more reliable the measure the... - ASNWER-Less error True Score Theory - ASNWER-Any variable that we measure is composed of two factors: true score and error component Observed score = true score + measurement error If measure is reliable than it has small error component Observed score reflects the true score If we have consistent error, our tool is reliable If error is random, tool is unreliable 25 External Validity - ASNWER-The ability to generalize the findings from a study. The question is whether the conclusion from a particular study can be applied to other people/objects/etc. If a study is externally valid, the conclusions drawn from it are not limited to the particular people/objects studied. Internal Validity - ASNWER-The accuracy of the conclusions drawn from a particular study. The study is designed and conducted (methodology) such that it leads to accurate findings about the phenomena being investigated, for the particular group of people/objects studied Two general types of the conclusion's validity: - ASNWER-Internal and External Internal Validity is compromised by three general threats: - ASNWER-1. How the research is conducted 2. Effects due to participants 3. Effects due to researchers Measurement validity and reliability - ASNWER-In order to have confidence in the conclusions drawn from the study, the measurements must be reliable & valid. Procedure validity and reliability - ASNWER-The researcher needs to make sure that any treatment he/she is using actually fits the purpose 26 Ex: The researcher wants the participants to think of their death. So he/she uses manipulates the IV (in this situation, having them fill out a survey with questions relating to their deaths) and makes sure that environmental influences are controlled (keeping the setting as consistent as possible). History in relation - ASNWER-Internal Validity: Changes in the environment external to the study that influence people's behavior within the study Ex: The participants have experienced war in their history and this changed their perspectives on their deaths Sleeper Effect - ASNWER-Internal Validity (How the Research is Conducted): Effects that take a while until they appear. You find no immediate effect. Sensitization (also testing or practice effect) - ASNWER-Internal Validity (How the Research is Conducted): The tendency for an initial measurement in a study to influence a subsequent measurement (solution: change order of measurements). Data Analysis - ASNWER-Internal Validity (How the Research is Conducted): 27 The way in which the data is analyzed (researcher sometimes use improper procedures to analyze data) may lead to invalid conclusions Hawthorne Effect - ASNWER-Internal Validity (Effects Due to Participants): How aware people are of a researcher's intent can influence their behavior. They aware of being studied, so they behave different than normal. Solution: not to let people know they are being studied or measure the behavior after they get accustomed to the measure. Selection - ASNWER-Internal Validity (Effects Due to Participants): Selection of participants may influence conclusions' validity Meaning: differences between groups are due to different participants in each group and not due to the research condition/ treatment). Mortality (or attrition) - ASNWER-Internal Validity (Effects Due to Participants): Loss of participant from the beginning to the end of the study, especially when the loss of participants is not equivalent between research groups Maturation - ASNWER-Internal Validity (Effects Due to Participants): 30 Face Validity - ASNWER-Measure of how representative research is at face value (does it seem to measure what it intended to?) Random assignments of participants - ASNWER-Eliminates initial differences between groups. Deals with threats of selection & statistical regression. Researcher Unintentional Expectancy Effect (Pygmalion Effect) - ASNWER-Internal Validity Effect (Effects Due to Researchers): The researchers influence participants responses by unintentionally letting them know the behavior they desire. Referred as "demand characteristics" - the researcher "demanding" specific behavior. Solution: "blind" RA's and follow an exact standard procedure for all participants. Researcher Observational Biases (three types): - ASNWER-Internal Validity Effect (Effects Due to Researchers): The people (researcher, research assistants) that observe the participants demonstrate inaccuracies during the observational process: 1. Observer drift 2. Observer Bias 3. Halo Effect Observer Drift - ASNWER-Observer become inconsistent in the criteria used to make and record observations (lengthy observation). 31 Solution: fresh observers. Observer Bias - ASNWER-Observer's knowledge of research purpose and or hypotheses influence their observation. Solution: blind observers. Ensure equal experimental environment - ASNWER-Different aspects of the environment are held constant (such as time of the day, location, etc.). Deals with threats of sensitization, Maturation, history. In the control experiment what distinguishes one end of the continuum from the other is the way in which researcher: - ASNWER-a. Exposes participants to the IV. b. Rules out initial differences between conditions. c. Controls for the effects of external influences. Control - ASNWER-Is not present or not. There is a continuum, ranging from loosely controlled experiments to very tightly controlled experiments Disadvantage of experiments: - ASNWER-1. Ecological validity. 2. Not always possible (time, money, ethical issues, un-manipulated variables). Therefore we commonly use other methods ways to examine our research questions: 32 -Surveys (typical correlational design) -Nonreactive measures (e.g. natural observation, content analysis).