Identity Theory for Career Guidance & Collaboration with Adolescents by School Counselors, Study notes of Literature

Download Identity Theory for Career Guidance & Collaboration with Adolescents by School Counselors and more Study notes Literature in PDF only on Docsity! School Counselors’ Use of Marcia’s Identity Status Theory for Career Advisement and Consultation and Collaboration Jered B. Kolbert Duquesne University Derron Hilts Syracuse University Laura M. Crothers Duquesne University Matthew L. Nice Indiana University of Pennsylvania 2 Abstract In this paper, we describe how school counselors can use Marcia’s theory of psychosocial identity development to provide differentiated career advisement for adolescent students. Furthermore, we identify how school counselors can use Marcia's theory of psychosocial identity development when collaborating and consulting with teachers and parents to assist them in supporting the career development of students. We explain how school counselors can determine a student's identity status, and we provide highly specific strategies for career advisement for adolescent students in accordance with each of Marcia's identity statuses. Keywords: school counseling, identity development, advisement, college and career readiness 5 In terms of career development, the student with an identity foreclosed status often can readily identity a career he or she wishes to pursue, and typically, the career that the student identifies is of high status (e.g., doctor, lawyer, engineer). However, the student may have difficulty explaining what they find appealing about a profession. In the identity moratorium status, the student is in the process of exploring their worldview; in other words, the student is within the midst of an identity crisis and is not firmly committed to a worldview. The student in the identity moratorium status may have a variety of career interests and have difficulty differentiating among these interests. The identity achieved student has undergone an exploration of self and has a mostly consistent worldview/set of values. Finally, the student in identity achievement has moved beyond career exploration and has entered the phase of career decision-making in which they are pursuing a career path compatible with their worldview. There is empirical support for aspects of Marcia's theory. A meta-analysis of 73 longitudinal and cross-sectional studies found that among adolescents and young adults, identity diffusion and foreclosure decrease over time while identity achievement increases (Kroger et al., 2010). Identity commitment is associated with aspects of resiliency, such as extraversion and emotional stability (Morsunbul et al., 2014), self- concept and self-esteem (Sugimura et al., 2015), and nurturing family relationships (Crocetti et al., 2017). Identity commitment is also strongly related to a number of indicators of mental health and adjustment, including low levels of internalizing symptoms and externalizing problem behaviors (Crocetti et al., 2013), positive well- being (Karas et al., 2015), life satisfaction (Sugimura et al., 2015), and academic achievement (Pop et al., 2016). 6 In contrast, reconsideration of identity commitment, which involves a search for alternative commitments because one’s current commitments are not satisfactory, is negatively associated with self-concept and self-esteem (Sugimura et al., 2015) and desirable personality traits such as agreeableness and extraversion (Hatano et al., 2016), and is predictive of low academic achievement (Pop et al., 2016). Additionally, reconsideration of commitment is strongly correlated to internal (e.g., symptoms of depression and anxiety) and external (e.g., involvement in delinquent behavior) psychosocial problems (Crocetti et al., 2008). Promoting Identity Status Development in Schools There are no identifiable articles in the school counseling literature that reference Marcia's (1966; 2007) identity status theory. However, there is some research regarding the general impact of education upon on identity status development. Yeager et al. (2012) found that high school students pursuing a combination of self- and beyond-the- self-oriented life goals through their intended future work were more likely than those with under-developed life aims to exhibit and develop psychological well-being, and were also more likely to report their school work as personally meaningful. The study also revealed that over the course of middle- and high-school attendance, teachers’ influence on students’ identity-relevant goal pursuits decreases. Rich and Schacter (2012) found that middle school students’ perceptions of teachers being worthy role models and their school’s commitment to students’ holistic development were positively related to their identity development. A cross-cultural study of early- to mid-adolescents revealed that students who perceived their teachers as being supportive of their perceived purpose in life were more likely to have identified a 7 life purpose, be oriented towards achieving their goals, and to have life goals that include contributing to society and others (Bundick & Tirri, 2014). Furthermore, school- based interventions, though scarce, have been found to enhance adolescents’ identity development (Verhoeven et al., 2019), goal directedness, and life satisfaction (Bundick, 2011). Marcia's (1966, 2007) theory of identity status development appears to offer several advantages to secondary school counselors for promoting students' career and personal/social development. A critique of many of the career development theories, such as Super’s (1980) theory, is that they only provide a broad understanding of the likely developmental career challenges at a particular life stage. In contrast, Marcia's theory provides a more differentiated assessment of adolescent students that has clear implications for advising. Marcia’s theory provides practitioners with a framework for assessing adolescents’ progress in developing a psychosocial identity, identifying four levels of psychosocial maturity. In contrast, most career developmental theories simply identify the tasks of a particular career development phase, and do not provide a framework for comparing adolescents’ career identity development, or suggest how adolescents undergo a phased process of psychosocial maturity related to career development. There are many articles in the school counseling literature that call for the use of a particular counseling theory for providing individual or group counseling (e.g., cognitive-behavioral, solution-focused, Adlerian, etc.). However, there are hardly any articles that suggest the use of a particular theory to promote students' career development for use in advising. Marcia's theory also appears to satisfy the profession's expectation that school counselors use theories that are empirically supported 10 counselors can promote such self-awareness through processing the results of career interest inventories, asking thestudent to describe their ideal picture of themselves within ten years, inquiring regarding what strengths the student thinks that others see in them, investigating what school subjects or elective school activities tend to interest the student, and exploring the student’s ideas for how to obtain additional experiences and information. School counselors may ask questions such as, “What do you think your friends think that you particularly excel in?”, followed by, “Do you agree, and if so, what are some potential careers that you are aware of that might align with your strengths?”, "What careers have you ever thought looked interesting or what you would like to learn more about?" Given that students may not be aware of the indefinite number of potential careers, school counselors may co-explore various online resources (e.g., Bureau of Labor Statistics) to initiate the student’s exploration of financial outcomes, typical job responsibilities, required training or education, etc. Students may also be interested, although through prompting and encouragement, in job shadowing, and visits to local colleges and career technical centers, to gain a better sense of potential post-secondary interests. Additionally, since the rigor of academic course selection is strongly associated with postsecondary planning and success, particularly for underprivileged youth (Ohrt et al., 2009), school counselors should strive to identify student strengths and encourage their enrollment in advanced courses. It is through the combination of such discourse and activities that students can be empowered to make highly-important decisions about their future (ASCA, 2019). 11 Identity Foreclosure Students with identity foreclosure are committed to a career path, but they have not undergone sufficient exploration (Marcia, 2002). Often such students can readily identify their career interest; however, they struggle to explain what they think they would like about that career or they have limited knowledge of the occupation or educational and training requirements for that career, as they have not actively investigated that career option. Students exhibiting identify foreclosure may be particularly challenging for the school counselor to advise, as the student may appear confident in their career path, and may not recognize that they have simply adopted the perspectives of their caregiver(s) or peers regarding their strengths and values and the career they should pursue in order to avoid the anxiety associated with career exploration. School counselors want students in the identity foreclosed status to think more critically about their career choices, asking such questions as “What do you think of your dad’s encouragement to become a carpenter? Does that fit with how you see yourself?”, “What do you think you would like about that career?”, “What do you know about the activities of carpenters?", "What do you see as the potential things you would not like about that career?" Identity Moratorium We assert that the hope for middle/junior high and high school students is that they are in the identity moratorium status, exploring various career options as they learn more about themselves and are in the process of developing a worldview that is differentiated from their parents and peers, while being able to also maintain that connection with parents and peers. School counselors can support students’ self- and 12 career exploration by helping them make sense of contrasting thoughts and values. The exploration process involves uncertainty and anxiety, which may manifest in the student wanting to avoid assuming responsibility for such large life choices by seeking others who will make decisions for them. School counselors should avoid pushing students to make large life decisions without the student having undergone a considerable process of reflection (Marcia, 2002). School counselors can normalize the student’s anxiety, and explore with the student how he or she effectively balances self-exploration and managing the anxiety associated with such self-exploration. Self- and career exploration involves a focus on the future, as the student thinks about the self they wishes to become. However, the student can also be encouraged to think about how he or she can alternate between thinking about the future and maintaining a present focus through leisure activities, exercise, relaxation exercises, mindfulness, etc. For example, school counselors can ask students such questions as “What is it like to be thinking about the future while also enjoying being in high school?”, “How do you balance the stress of thinking about your future while also enjoying yourself”? Identity Achievement Students exhibiting characteristics of identity achievement have undergone a process of self- and career exploration, and is committed to a set of personal values and at least a general career path. Marcia (2002) asserts that the form of assistance persons in identity achievement seek is information gathering. In regards to school counselors, students in identity achievement likely want specific information regarding academic course selection, extracurricular opportunities (e.g., internships), and career and postsecondary options (e.g., prestigious and competitive programs). Given that this 15 Consultation and Collaboration with Parents and/or Legal Guardians Marcia (2002) agreed with Erikson’s (1968) that adolescents’ development of an ego identity is related to their caregivers’ ability to support their identity exploration. Caregivers who help to “grow” younger members of the society achieve a sense of generativity, whereas caregivers who fail to effective support younger generations experience a sense of stagnation (Marcia, 2002, p. 199). ASCA’s (2017) position statement regarding advising indicates that school counselors are expected to collaborate with families and/or legal guardians in ensuring that students develop academic and career plans. From the perspective of Erikson (1968) and Marcia (2002), by assisting caregivers, including parents, legal guardians, and teachers, in supporting adolescents’ identity exploration, school counselors are helping caregivers satisfy their psychological need for generativity. School counselors should be sensitive to the likelihood that contextual variables, including family and environmental characteristics, influence the student’s identity status and career maturity. Lower levels of family cohesion are associated with career commitment anxiety among college students (Lustig, 2018), while adolescents who are highly attached to their parents are more likely to have a higher level of career maturity (Emmanuelle, 2009). Dietrich and Kracke (2009) assert that adolescents prefer parents allow them to select their career and encourage them to explore various career interests and alternatives. In contrast, adolescents are likely to avoid career exploration when they perceive their parents as controlling them (Savickas, 2002). Lim and You (2019) found that career activities that are selected and suggested by parents do not promote their adolescent child’s career maturity, leading the authors to conclude parents should 16 act as assistants rather than leaders of their child’s exploration, providing their adolescent child with relevant information and allowing them to make decisions independently. School counselors should seek to educate parents, either through workshops or literature, about developmentally-appropriate ways to engage their child in career exploration. The entrée into adolescence is considered to require a qualitative transformation of the parent-child relationship, involving parents moving from a directive approach to that more of a consultative position (McGoldrick et al., 2016). Whereas in pre-adolescence, parents provide high structure and information to their children, with adolescence, the parent should be asking more questions of their adolescent, with such general questions, “What do you think about it”, “Does that fit with how you see yourself” Unfortunately, adults in the life of the student who is faced with career decision making may seek to alleviate their anxiety by encouraging the student to commit to a life/career decision to decrease their anxiety. Making a decision about one’s career path may alleviate the student’s anxiety in the short-term, but curtails the exploration that is considered necessary for understanding one’s values, strengths, limitations, etc. Parents can be made aware of the tendency to wish to minimize their child’s anxiety by offering them advice. Furthermore, school counselors can encourage parents to identify and manage their emotions in knowing that their child is experiencing anxiety with career decision-making, and help them to recognize the ways in which they can support their child in learning to manage their anxiety. 17 Consultation and Collaboration with Teachers School counselors can use Marcia's (1966, 2007) theory as an overarching framework for training teachers to use evidence-based strategies to promote students' career development. Verhoeven et al. (2019) conducted a narrative review of the literature regarding teachers' role in facilitating students' sociocultural and personal identity development. They authors identified that the following instructional activities were associated with students' identity exploration: exposing students to unfamiliar learning contents, on-site and hands-on activities, encouraging self-reflection through writing and classroom discussions with peers, and supporting students in connecting academic knowledge to their personal lives. A supportive school climate was identified as a contributor to students' identity exploration, with research suggesting that students need to feel secure with their peers and teachers in order to engage in psychological risk-taking. Teacher support may take the form of close, personal relationships with students and complimenting students. Teachers can facilitate peer support by using learning activities that invite mutual encouragement among students and making adolescents aware of their commonalities. Interestingly, Verhoeven et al. (2019) concluded that learning activities that facilitate students' identity exploration are currently not well integrated in the formal academic curriculum. Marcia's (1966, 2007) theory can serve as an understandable framework in training teachers to facilitate students' exploration. Teachers would likely grasp the developmental need for adolescents to explore their academic and career interests, and be able to help students identify strategies for managing the anxiety associated with exploration. Moreover, knowledge of the four 20 References American School Counselor Association. (2019). ASCA National Model: A framework for school counseling programs (4th ed.). Author. American School Counselor Association. (2017). 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The role of future work goal motives in adolescent identity development: A longitudinal mixed-methods investigation. 26 Contemporary Educational Psychology, 37(3), 2016-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2012.01.004 27 Biographical Statement Dr. Jered B. Kolbert is a professor of counselor education in the Department of Counseling, Psychology, and Special Education at Duquesne University. Dr. Kolbert's research interests include bullying and relational aggression and comprehensive school counseling programs. Derron Hilts is a doctoral candidate in the Counseling and Counselor Education program at Syracuse University. Mr. Hilts’ research interests include school counseling leadership and advocacy and comprehensive school counseling programs. Dr. Laura M. Crothers is a professor of school psychology in the Department of Counseling, Psychology, and Special Education at Duquesne University. Dr. Crothers’ research interests include bullying and relational aggression and school-based consultation. Dr. Matthew L. Nice is an assistant professor in the Department of Counseling at Indiana University of Pennsylvania. Dr. Nice’s research interests include comprehensive school counseling programs, career counseling, and identity development.