Understanding Cultural Context in Texts: A Comparative Approach, Lecture notes of Religion

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Introduction v

1. The Cultural Context 1
2. Theme or Issue 44
3. Literary Genre 86
4. The General Vision and Viewpoint 127

iii

CONTENTS

Overview

The cultural context is the world or society of the text. It refers to when and where the story is set, the type of society that is represented in the text, its way of life, its values and its day-to-day rituals. We look for evidence of what is important to the author and characters. The social, political, religious and economic structure of society is considered here. The different roles of men and women, the notion of race, violence, social class, customs, rituals and the importance of work can also be included in an answer on cultural context. Many of these aspects of cultural context will overlap and intertwine at times.

Studying cultural context in your texts

When you are reading a Leaving Cert novel or play (or watching a film), begin by examining the setting. The time and place in which the story is set provides a good starting point for understanding the unique ‘world’ of the text.

As you become more familiar with your comparative texts, you can examine them under key aspects of cultural context , such as class, family, power, attitudes, violence, religion, money, freedom, gender, values etc. What kind of society exists in the text? Which scenes or moments best illustrate the social setting?

Always remember that aspects of cultural context will overlap at times. This is true of the following two social features.

Family

What types of family are found in your text — modern nuclear or traditional extended or some other structure? Is a close friendship a substitute for family life? Are there parents or guardians? Are there brothers or sisters? Or is the main character an only child? What sort of relationships exist within the family? Are they functional or dysfunctional? Does the family provide security or does it put pressure

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on the individual? What insights do you gain about the world of your text from examining family structure and behaviour?

Values

What values and principles are important in the society of the text? Is friendship and respect valued? Or is success and money more significant? Is the society law-abiding? What part does religion play in the lives of characters? Are the rights of individuals held in high regard or are they exploited? How is authority maintained — through respect or fear? Is power used well or abused? Are people liberal and tolerant or are they narrow-minded? Do you agree with the values you find in this society? Would you like to live in the ‘world’ of this text?

EXAM TIP

All comparative modes overlap. The same key scene or moment may be used to illustrate theme, viewpoint or literary genre as well as the cultural context. What matters is the interpretation and emphasis that is placed on that particular key moment.

Comparative Links

Successful comparative answers on cultural context include clear links between texts. Examiners will expect to see comparative language so that they can code the points you are making. In responding to cultural context questions, the following words and phrases may be useful in pointing out similarities and/or differences between texts:  similarly ...  quite the reverse is seen in ...  the scene is reminiscent of ...  equally noticable is ...  in a very different way ...  this is the only text where we see ...  whereas ...  nothing like this occurs in ...

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THE CULTURAL CONTEXT

 this is the only text where we notice ...  social class is equally important in both texts ...

Cultural Context

Key Moment to Exam Answer

The following exemplar shows how a key scene or moment from a well-known text can be the basis of an effective comparative answer. It will show you the process of referring to your own texts effectively. Read through the short extract and then examine how the scene has been used in the paragraph that follows it.

Text: Silas Marner , a nineteenth-century novel by George Eliot.

Background : Silas Marner is a reclusive miser whose whole world is transformed when he adopts an unwanted child whom he names Eppie. Towards the end of the story, the old man recovers the gold that was stolen from him on the same night that Eppie came into his life. In this key scene, Silas looks back on how his love for her has brought him such happiness.

‘At first, I’d a sort of feeling come across me now and then,’ he was saying in a subdued tone, ‘as if you might be changed into the gold again; for sometimes, turn my head which way I would, I seemed to see the gold; and I thought I should be glad if I could feel it, and find it was come back. But that didn’t last long. After a bit, I should have thought it was a cure come again, if it had drove you from me, for I’ve got to feel the need o’ your looks and your voice and the touch o’ your little fingers. You didn’t know then, Eppie, when you were such a little un – you didn’t know what your old father Silas felt for you.’

‘But I know now, father,’ said Eppie. ‘If it hadn’t been for you, they’d have taken me to the workhouse, and there’d have been nobody to love me.’ ‘Eh, my precious child, the blessing was mine. If you hadn’t been sent to save me, I should ha’ gone to the grave in misery. The money was taken away from me in time; and you see it’s been kept – kept till it was wanted for you. It’s wonderful – our life is wonderful.’ Silas sat in silence a few minutes, looking at the money. ‘It takes no hold of me now,’ he said, ponderingly – ‘the money doesn’t. I wonder if it ever could again – I doubt it might, if I lost you, Eppie. I might come to think I was forsaken again, and lose the feeling that God was good to me.’ Note how the tender atmosphere of this scene highlights the close relationship between Eppie and her surrogate father, Silas. It reflects the special ‘world’ they have created for themselves. It is much more valuable to them than material possessions could ever be. The author makes it clear that Silas’ values have been radically changed by the power of love. He has now become part of the local community. All these aspects of cultural context are evident within the extract. In exploring cultural context, the following exemplar uses the Silas Marner key scene to answer this Leaving Cert question: Careful study of a key moment can provide worthwhile insights into the cultural context of a narrative text. Discuss this statement in relation to the texts you have studied for your comparative course. Near the end of ‘Silas Marner’, the weaver has clearly come to appreciate the importance of family love. All through the story, family life is seen as the centre of human relations. A similar idea is present in ‘My Left Foot’ where Christy Brown goes up in the world but still shows his appreciation for his mother by becoming the artist she always knew he could be. Silas is equally proud of Eppie, his adopted daughter, and their lives have been transformed by the love between them. He sums up his feelings for Eppie with the words: ‘the blessing was mine.’ Silas is more than grateful for the ‘wonderful’ life he and Eppie share. As the story ends, he lets Eppie know that he is no longer interested in gold: ‘It takes no hold of me now’. This emotional scene also shows us how Silas has become part of the Raveloe community where the ordinary villagers place more importance on human relationships and love of God. Just as Christy’s family love him for himself, we can see that appearances count for nothing in both texts. Within the world of the novel, greed and selfishness have only brought loneliness and misery – especially during Silas’ first fifteen years when he devoted his life to saving money. Because of Eppie, he eventually realises that ‘God was good to me’ and he cannot imagine living without his daughter.

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EXAMINER’S COMMENTS

As part of a full essay answer, this A grade comparative paragraph makes very good use of the key scene from Silas Marner. The importance of family love is also referred to in a second text. Apt quotations are used to show that Silas’ world has been completely changed by the power of love. This, in turn, has brought him much closer to the local people. Overall, a very well-managed paragraph.

EXERCISE

In response to the same question above, choose a key scene from one of the texts you are studying and use it as the basis of a practice paragraph (at least 150 words).

EXAM TIP

Remember that key moments are simply the episodes or incidents in the text that best exemplify important points you wish to make. There is usually no need to describe the moment in enormous detail. It is more important to explain what the chosen moment signifies and how it manages to do this.

Effective Paragraphs

To write successful examination answers, you have to engage with the given task and use focused references from your chosen texts. You will also be expected to structure the points you make in clearly written and coherent paragraphs. Study the exemplar that follows to see how an effective paragraph can be written.

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Sample Paragraph: Power (in Macbeth and Wuthering Heights )

Compare the way in which the cultural context is established by the authors of the texts you have studied. The world of ‘Macbeth’ is dominated by the pursuit of power. From the very start, Macbeth himself seems obsessed with ‘the imperial theme’. After the murder of Duncan, the new king is soon corrupted by his ‘vaulting ambition’ for power. Shakespeare introduces us to a power struggle which leads to Macbeth’s evil reign and chaos in Scotland. In the scene before attacking Macbeth’s castle, Macduff and Malcolm both refer to Scotland as their ‘poor country’. Ross describes his homeland in this way: ‘Alas! Poor country. Almost afraid to know itself’. The repetition emphasises Shakespeare’s view of the fear and tyranny Macbeth has created. I was also aware of a similar atmosphere of corrupted power in the world of ‘Wuthering Heights’ – especially when Heathcliff returned to take his merciless revenge against Hindley Earnshaw and Edgar Linton. Emily Brontë presents readers with a monstrous character who used his own strength and every trick he could think of – including an arranged marriage to Isabella – to bring misery to Thrushcross Grange and the Heights. It did not take him long to destroy Edgar and Catherine’s marriage, cheat Hindley out of his home and ruin Isabella’s life. In these two texts, both authors create worlds where power is seen as an evil force, destroying order and civilised life.

EXAMINER’S COMMENT

As part of a full answer, this confidently written A grade paragraph addresses the question directly by comparing how the cultural context is created in two classic texts. The informed references and quotations show how both authors establish the importance of power as a negative force through the two central characters.

EXERCISE

Write a well-focused paragraph showing how the author of a text you are studying establishes the cultural context of one of the following: 1 power (within a family, in society, in a relationship, etc.) 2 authority (government, community, family, work environment, etc.) 3 political corruption (abuse of power, fraud, etc.)

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Modelling Your Response

Note the structure of the exemplar above when planning your own paragraph.

 The opening sentence identifies the cultural aspect to be discussed (power).  The central character’s abuse of power in the first text is illustrated (Macbeth).  Evidence is given (reference and quotation).  Note the comparisons between the two texts (‘I was also aware ...’ and ‘both ...’).  The protagonist’s abuse of power in the second text is also discussed, using reference and quotes from Heathcliff.  The final sentence sums up the comparison.

EXAM TIP

Clear, lively expression will enhance any answer. Avoid awkward statements such as ‘It says in the book ...’ Fresher alternatives include ‘The author lets us know ...’ and ‘We get an insight into ...’

Sample Paragraph: Poverty

In most narratives, money (or the lack of it) plays a major part in determining the lives of characters. As a cultural trait, poverty is closely linked to many other cultural features, such as homelessness , power , crime etc. The paragraph below deals with poverty in Sean O’Casey’s play The Plough and the Stars. After reading it, think about the impact of economic considerations on the characters in your own chosen texts. The exemplar that follows was written in response to this Leaving Cert question:

Choose any two of the texts studied as part of your comparative course and describe how aspects of the cultural context shaped the overall atmosphere of the narratives. Illustrate your points by reference to the two texts. ‘The Plough and the Stars’ is set back in the 1916 Rising. The atmosphere is not heroic. Most of the characters in the play are all struggling and living in terrible poverty although Jack and Nora Clitheroe are better off than their neighbours in the Dublin tenements. Mrs Gogan’s family are examples of what reality was really like in the run-down slums. She talks about death all the time. Her poor daughter is sick with consumption and Mollser dies of the disease near the end of the story. Life is a

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struggle. Mrs Gogan sums up the hard life of the workers by calling the run-down tenements ‘vaults that are hiding away the dead’. The atmosphere of poverty is common during the Easter Rising. It was not at all heroic. Mollser was dying of an incurable disease. The same poverty is seen in ‘How Many Miles’. Jerry Crowe and his father are forced to join the British army to send money back home. Unlike Alec who has everything, Jerry is very poor. This drives him to war and his downfall. One reason the story is tragic is because of his poverty. Both the play and the novel are set at the very same time. Both these narratives create an overall unheroic atmosphere of poverty which affects the working class people of Ireland.

EXAMINER’S COMMENT

This paragraph attempts to make a valid connection between the two texts about the effects of poverty. While the point is not developed coherently, the references and quotation (though imprecise) offer some relevant support. More comment on the atmosphere would improve the answer. Awkward expression and repetition also reduce the work to a basic C grade.

EXERCISE

With reference to the texts you are studying, write a paragraph (roughly 200 words) about the importance of either wealth or poverty in shaping the overall atmosphere of the narratives.

Sample Paragraph: Family Life

The influence of family is another key aspect of cultural context. It can be a positive or negative influence. The paragraph below makes reference to crucial relationships to compare the effects of family life in a modern novel ( The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time ) and a film ( Cinema Paradiso ). You can apply this approach to other texts that you are studying. The exemplar that follows was written in response to this Leaving Cert question: ‘The values and attitudes of one’s family are often hard to bear for the individual character.’ Consider at least two of the texts that you studied for your comparative course in the light of this statement. In ‘The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time’ by Mark Haddon, the story is set in contemporary England. Christopher Boone is an autistic 15-year-old who has

THE CULTURAL CONTEXT

severe difficulties coping with the world around him. The plot revolves around Christopher’s investigation into the death of his neighbour’s dog. Christopher’s father loves his son but often loses his temper with him. This family pressure affects Christopher badly. In the same way, Alfredo in ‘Cinema Paradiso’ is a father-figure for Toto, but he also is angry with him at times. Toto’s biological father has been killed in war and this makes life difficult for the young boy. Because he has no father to look up to, he admires Alfredo, the old projection worker who takes over the father’s role. Toto loves hanging about the cinema and he sometimes gets in Alfredo’s way. Christopher Boone’s mother has left the family and he also has fights with his father. He feels isolated, especially as his father is also away at work. When his father finds Christopher’s diary, he loses his temper and hides it from him. He also stops his son from continuing his investigation into the dog’s death. Christopher also struggles to communicate with his father and he is also terrified of him, so much so that he eventually runs away from home to find his mother. In both these two texts, life is hard for Toto and also Christopher because of family pressure.

EXAMINER’S COMMENT

This is a reasonably well-focused paragraph which addresses the shared experiences of the two boys. The response to the question is grounded in specific moments where family pressures affect the lives of the two central characters. The comparative link is effectively made, but points are not underpinned by close reference – particularly in dealing with the film. Overuse of the word ‘also’ weakens the expression. A good C1 standard.

EXERCISE

Based on the texts you have studied, write a well-illustrated paragraph in response to the same Leaving Cert question about the effects of family life on the individual.

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EXAM TIP

Discussing the Role of Family The questions below will help you examine the family structures in your texts:  What type of family is represented in your text? Is it nuclear or extended?  Are there parents or guardians? Are there brothers or sisters, or is the main character an only child?  What kind of relationships exist within the family? Are they functional or dysfunctional?  Does the family unit promote harmony or put pressure on individuals?  Has the family an active or passive role in society?  Do the children honour or reject the family?  Are different types of family represented in your texts? List them. Are some more successful than others? Why? How?  What insight do you gain from an examination of the family structures in your texts?

Sample Paragraph: Religion (in Silas Marner )

In assessing Comparative Study answers, examiners sometimes find that not enough attention has been given to the actual wording of the question. This usually leads to unfocused work and lower marks. In the exemplar that follows, a key element of the question (‘sharpens our awareness’) has not been addressed. The paragraph that follows was written in response to the question: ‘The comparative study of texts sharpens our awareness of many important aspects of cultural context.’ Discuss this view, basing your response on at least two texts you have studied as part of your comparative course. Support the comparisons you make by close reference to the texts. In ‘Silas Marner’ at the begining , Silas belongs to the Lantern yard, a narrow-minded religious church. He seems happy in this awesome religion where he obeys their strict laws without thinking. The old preacher is strict and some of the group are totally

hypocrytical like William Dane. When Silas is so blamed in the wrong for stealing, we see this weird religion isn’t really Christian at all. The drawing of lots is just superstition which leads to Silas going to Raveloe where the community’s religion is not strict. Raveloe religion is more a part of the social life and Dolly Winthrop has a blind faith in ‘them up high above’ this brings Silas back to church. Religion starts off having a very bad effect on Silas but in Raveloe it is for his own good. He takes up his faith in God and he is fullfilled. In the second book, it is set in 1990 in Dublin, The Homesick Garden. But religion plays no part in the lives of the characters. It is secular. This is so the modern world and they have no interest in religion. Silas only became interested in religion because Eppie had to be christened. He is more aware of religion because Dolly kept asking him to come to church. This makes Silas a happy man and is completly different to Antonia and her secular family.

Spellcheck!

beginning hypocritical fulfilled completely

EXAMINER’S COMMENTS

While there is a focus on religion as it affects the characters in both texts, there is little focus on how texts sharpen our awareness of cultural context. Points lack development and are largely implicit. The expression is awkward and the quotation is imprecise. While some attempt is made at comparison, the reference to the second novel is vague. Spelling errors would also be penalised. As part of a full answer, the standard here is D1.

EXERCISE

Based on the texts you have studied, write an effective paragraph (about 200 words) on either the presence or the absence of religious belief in sharpening your awareness of cultural context. Note : before you begin, think about the nature and effect of religion in your texts – strict, avenging, insignificant, supportive, compassionate etc. How is religion presented? What are the ceremonies and rituals like? Are there contrasting forms of religion in the texts? Is there a secular (non-religious) culture? How does this affect characters?

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Sample Paragraph: Class

Social class can be seen in most narratives. In the paragraph below, which refers to the classic novel Wuthering Heights and the American drama Death Of A Salesman , the writer explores the effects of class on the lives of the central characters. You can apply this idea to the texts you are studying. This exemplar was written in response to this Leaving Cert question: ‘A narrative text creates its own unique world in which the reader can share.’ Write a response to the above statement in which you compare the texts you have studied as part of your comparative course. Support the comparisons you make by reference to the texts. The influence of class is important in the world of ‘Wuthering Heights’. Heathcliff is seen as an outsider, a homeless orphan from the streets of Liverpool. Emily Brontë’s story was written in the 1840s at a time of severe economic depression. Class considerations were important for anyone getting married and Catherine Earnshaw realises that it would ‘degrade’ her to marry Heathcliff. During childhood Heathcliff is abused by Hindley, but he is unable to cope with Catherine’s class prejudice. In the scene where Catherine discusses her contrasting attitudes to Edgar Linton and Heathcliff, Brontë shows us that Catherine is only being realistic when she says they would end up as ‘beggars’ if they married. Although she has little love for Edgar, marriage to him would provide security and respectability as ‘the greatest woman of the neighbourhood’. To a great extent, Heathcliff’s low social position is responsible for the misery and conflict that takes place. Brontë never lets us forget that social class was a major influence in the choices and happiness of people during Victorian times. This powerful force is also evident to the reader in Arthur Miller’s ‘Death of a Salesman’ where Willy Loman struggles to find the American dream. Like Heathcliff, Willy is also a victim of his environment and the ‘Loman’ name itself is a symbol of his struggle for materialistic success.

EXAMINER’S COMMENTS

This well-written A grade paragraph took a clear comparative approach and focused on class. Reference and the short quotations add useful support. While most of the paragraph is about the ‘unique world’ of the novel, a clear link is made with a second text where class also plays an important part. It seems likely that a follow-up paragraph would look more closely at the unique world of Death of a Salesman.

EXERCISE

Based on the model above, spend about 15 minutes writing a paragraph about one of the following as a cultural influence in a text that you are studying: (a) class; (b) money; (c) marriage. Remember to focus directly on the question, refer to an important scene or scenes, and include a comparative link with a second text.

Developing Cultural Context Points

There is no single type of or ‘correct’ A grade answer. Every student chooses the structure that suits him/her best by organising well- supported points into paragraphs.

However, a comparative point can be treated in greater detail by developing it over a number of paragraphs. In the exemplars that follow, you will learn the skills of developing a structured discussion on an aspect of cultural context.

Start by studying the developed comparison below. Both paragraphs refer to the play Juno and the Paycock , and focus on values as an aspect of the ‘world’

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of the text. When you have read through the exemplar, consider the values and principles that are present in the texts you are studying. The answer was written in response to this question: ‘The kind of culture in which a text is set presents the reader with a certain view of life.’ Compare the treatment of the cultural context in two of the texts you studied as part of your comparative course. Sean O’Casey in the early twentieth century Irish play gives the reader a certain view of life as he shows us a working class family struggling to survive in the run-down tenements of Dublin. Captain Boyle, his wife Juno, their children Mary and Johnny live in one room. Boyle’s value system does not include work. He has an aversion to it. As he says to his ‘butty’ Joxer, ‘That’s what the clergy want, work, work, work, for me an’ you; havin’ us mulin’ from mornin’ till night.’ He uses every excuse not to work, complaining ‘D’ye know I’m hardly able to crawl with the pains in me legs’. He is equally dismissive of education and books. When Mary, his daughter is attempting to improve herself, he dismisses her efforts with the comment: ‘Oh Mary: she’s always readin’ lately – nothin’ but thrash too ... The Doll’s House, Ghosts an’ The Wild Duck – buks fit only for chiselurs.’ In Boyle’s view, there is no point in reading serious plays. This family regards possessions as a sign of success. When Boyle hears from Bentham, Mary’s boyfriend, that he is to inherit almost £2000, the family immediately start to spend, even before they have received any money. In Act 2, O’Casey shows us how possessions are held dear as he describes their purchases in the stage directions. ‘The furniture is more plentiful and of a vulgar nature ... a glaringly upholstered armchair.’ Everything lacks good taste, but Boyle’s family believe they have made it. Even Juno, his wife, who normally sees reality clearly becomes temporarily blinded by this financial windfall and utters words she will later regret about Mrs. Tancred. She is a Protestant neighbour in the tenement, who has lost her only son in the First World War. Juno says: ‘In wan way, she deserves all she got.’ Here is a family whose value system is going astray, even the normally sensible ones are deluded by the new grandeur. However, in my second text, the main characters show us very different values ...

EXAMINER’S COMMENTS

There is a strong emphasis on the value system of working-class Dublin here. Cogent points are clearly made and supported. Indeed, very effective use is made of numerous detailed references and many accurate quotations enhance the answer. The second paragraph is particularly well developed. Overall, a good A grade standard.

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