Social Psychology - A Final Exam Study Guide | PSYC 221, Study notes of Social Psychology

Download Social Psychology - A Final Exam Study Guide | PSYC 221 and more Study notes Social Psychology in PDF only on Docsity! Hey guys! I stopped the doc from being able to be edited, since the first section is about to take the exam. This ensures that there’s no “academic dishonesty,” since I would be liable because I created the doc. Thanks to everyone who contributed, and good luck! Flashcards! http://quizlet.com/8735315/compilation-of-221-final-flashcards-flash-cards/ you guys are incredible. thank you. , Here is the website for the textbook, it has flashcards and crossword puzzles. I think it’ll be a lot more easier to use this than to create our own. http :// www . wadsworth . com / cgi - wadsworth / course _ products _ wp . pl ? fid = M 20 b & product _ isbn _ issn =9780495601333& token = 1) Science of Social Psychology- Chapter 1 ● The basics - what is psychology designed to do? What are social psychologists interested in studying? ○ Social psychology is the study of how we affect and are affected by others. ○ It is designed to make sense of the diversity of human behavior and the social world ○ Interested in how social factors influence Affect, Behavior, Cognition (ABC Triad) ■ Affect : how people feel inside. How they feel about themselves, others, and various issues. ■ Behavior : What people do, their actions ■ Cognition : What people think about. What they think about themselves, others and various problems ○ Social psychologists are interested in how these three themes are affected by personal and situational forces, although they primarily focus on situation. ■ Focus on situational factors that one may not even be aware of. ● Research vs lay-theories/folk-theories-myth: catharsis decreases aggression ○ Social psychologists takes ideas that everyone assumes to be true and find out what is really true. ○ Lay Theories/Philosophy: love of wisdom ■ Similar concepts/definitions to psychology ■ Psychology is separated from philosophy because of psychology’s heavy reliance on the scientific method ■ Common wisdom or folk theories allow us to happily judge adages as being true and at the same time judge their opposites to be true: ■ Ex: fear is stronger than love. love is stronger than fear ○ Research involves the Scientific Method ● Theoretical perspective - power of situation/momentary effects ○ Stroop Task - words that spell out a color but is shaded with a different color ○ Priming : “spreading activation” planting or spreading an idea in someone’s mind; Automatic ~embedded words, memory, facilitation, personality and brands ○ Semantic Priming - study of meaning, words, phrases facilitate responses to other words “fear snake” effects are always relative ○ Schema : cognitive structures representing ideas in the mind Schema:Mind :: Neuron: Brain 1 ■ Characteristics Schemata: exist in both Conscious/Rational and Automatic/Associative mind. Dynamic (at first); stable & resistant to change when formed) ■ Types of Schemata: concept, specific person, group (stereotypes), self (fluctuates across situations), event (stand alone), procedure/scripts ○ Scripts: an enduring cognitive structure summarizing commonalities; “restaurant script” ■ knowledge base; facilitates communication/cooperation; manifest in behaviors and narratives ● Theories vs phenomena- phenomena is what something is or what an affect is and theories are a symbolic representation of reality; accounts for why something is. ● Validity (internal vs external)- internal: control over variables and validity of measures/tests. external: generalizable ● Correlation vs causation- measures variables to see if they are related. Cause of one variable could correlate with another. correlation does NOT equal causation ● Methods for studying behavior/mental processes/physical processes- surveys, observation (jane gooddall) ○ Meta-analysis : quantitative literature review that combines the statistical results from all studies on a particular topic ○ Field Experiment : manipulate IV in a real-world setting ○ Observational study : pure real-world environment, no control. need good coding, difficult to achieve. ○ Surveys : questionnaire, time-efficient, a lot of data. self-report biases (social desirability) and accuracy of behavior. ○ Experience-sampling : gather data on behavior as it happens, journal ○ Simulation : put people into roles, see how they behave ○ Physiological measurement : fMRI, EEG 2) Social Cognition- Chapter 5 ● Conscious vs automatic mind (also called ‘rational’ and ‘associative’) ○ conscious: ■ slow ■ reasoning ■ effortful ■ flexible ■ controllable ○ automatic: ■ fast ■ effortless ■ unintentional ■ stubborn/stable ■ evaluations based on gut instinct ● automaticity- most psychological processes occur automatically ○ not necessarily outside of awareness, but outside of conscious control ○ ~5% of behaviors governed by conscious control ○ supported by different theoretical perspectives ● priming (‘spreading activation of related mental nodes’) ○ priming activates related concepts/ideas in the mind’s network (automatic, uncontrollable) 2 ● positive illusions (self-serving bias)- ○ accuracy for perceiving others, but not for self ■ more accurate for perceiving others, not self (inflate perception of self) ● reducing bias is a nearly-impossible challenge ○ meditation and mindfulness help but not reduce biases completely ● metacognition/mindfulness ○ Metacognition: thinking about thinking ○ meditation - increases control over emotion. Increases positive emotion, cognitive ability, memory. Some cases it shows physical health benefits. ● attributions: the inferences people make about events in their lives. A crucial form of information processing that helps determine behavior. ○ internal vs external; stable vs unstable - ■ Internal- ability, personality, attitudes, mood, and effort. ■ External- the task, other people, or luck. ■ Stable- generally doesnt change, the outcome will be the same if you do the same behavior on another occasion. ■ Unstable- changeable, outcome will be different on another occasion ○ explanations for behavior, events, success/failure - Weiner proposed a 2 dimensional theory that combined internal/external and stable/unstable to create different attributions. ■ Internal-stable (ex: I am just really good at taking tests and that is why I aced it) ■ internal-unstable (I did well on the test because I studied hard this one time). ■ external-stable. (I did badly on the test because the tests are hard and the teachers are always unfair) ■ external-unstable. (i got lucky (external) and did well this one time (unstable)) ○ What variables increase likelihood of making an attribution?-when person is under a heavy cognitive load ○ Kelley’s Cube- according to Kelly people make attributions by using the covariation principle- for something to cause a behavior it must be present when the behavior occurs but not present when the behavior does not occur. - ○ Three types of information to make an attribution ■ Consistency-does the person usually behave this way in this situation? ■ Consensus- do others behavior similarly in the same situation? ■ Distinctiveness- does the person behave differently in different situations? ○ make an external attribution when consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness are all high. but an internal attribution when consistency is high but distinctiveness and consensus are low. ○ Fundamental Attribution Error - the tendency to make internal attributions about out-group members while making external attributions about your own group ■ Attribute someone’s mistake on a test to their own lack of studying/knowledge, but blame your own mistakes on the wording of the questions ○ Actor-Observer Bias ■ actor (themselves) → external attributions (accident car crash or failing in sport; cop is a jerk) 5 ■ observer (other people) → internal attributions ( he must have bad luck or did something wrong to deserve that; driver is reckless) ● Easier to blame the other person because they are a “bad person” rather than to think of a situation that would cause them to act badly 3) Self/Personality- Chapter 3 ● i vs me ○ I: existential, spiritual, always with you ○ Me: self concept, physical, manifestation, changes in different situations ○ me is influenced by social effects, and I is impermeable ● self-understanding dimensions ○ Abstraction: describing yourself in abstract terms instead of purely concrete terms. Changes as we grow up. When you are young you describe yourself according to physical features. As we grow up we describe ourselves in more abstract terms (ex. child: 3’5” and brown hair; adult: impulsive, responsible). ○ socialization-parents and peers socialize us in different ways, they influence our behavior, understanding that is part of understanding the dimensions of the self ○ fluctuation-momentary differences in how situations affect our behavior, we are different in different situations ■ variability in certain social frameworks ○ real vs ideal- who we are vs. who we want and strive to be ○ social comparison- ‘looking glass self’, our social perception is bias because we gain info about ourselves from society ○ self consciousness-being aware of how we present ourselves in situations ○ self protection-leads to a lot of bias wanting to protect the ego from disturbing info ○ unconscious self -understanding (being aware) that there are parts of yourself that you cannot control (that you have an automatic part of your mind) ○ integrative self-this is a task for young adults, information you compile about yourself determines who you are, young adulthood is when self concepts are formed, young adults are looking for our identity (when young adults try to form a stable self concept) ● specific effects of self-awareness (does not equal self-consciousness) ○ sense of continuity, structure for understanding ourselves-stable over time; happier ● self-serving biases ○ self handicapping-making up excuses for yourself before hand so that if you fail, it’s not your fault ■ pulling all nighter before exam-->fail-->”I just didn’t get enough sleep” ○ basking in reflected glory-associating yourself with people who are successful so that their success is yours for example, wearing the jersey of the winning team so their glory becomes yours ○ downward comparison- comparing yourself to people who you are worse off than so you feel better about yourself ● self-verification- ○ motivation to maintain self schema despite conflicting info ● Self-expansion ○ motivation to increase self concept, want to experience new things/people ● self-presentation (esp with regard to online/internet interaction) 6 ○ self concept is more accessible when interacting online; we’re more genuine online ● self-esteem ○ appraisal of oneself as good or bad, associated with understanding the self ○ ingredients, outcomes, costs of pursuit, mixed benefits ○ narcissism- high self esteem ○ Self-esteem as good: ■ Ego strength, more assertive, work better in groups, happy with yourself, deals with problems better, overall better mental health ○ Self-esteem as bad: ■ Lack of motivation to improve/learn ● Self-concept clarity ● benefits of adversity for self-concept, personal growth, meaning-making ○ benefit of adversity= being able to learn about yourself and have a greater self concept (learn your strengths and weaknesses) ● 3 levels of personality ○ level 1: trait (introversion, extroversion) ○ level 2: adaption (change with changing environment, ability to deal with problems) ○ level 3: the story we create for ourselves (combining traits and experience) Matching of all 3 levels is called “Vertical Coherence” ● big 5 traits (OCEAN) Openness--willingness to integrate new information (or unwilling) Conscientiousness--how organized people are (or unorganized) Extroversion--how sociable someone is (or introverted) Agreeableness--friendliness, cooperative in social situation (high or low) Neuroticism--emotional instability (or stability) ● judgments of personality from others ○ personality can be somewhat determined by behavioral residue ■ people went to people’s bedroom and picked up on: ● conscientious: clean, organized, matched contents ● openness: peripherally located, low traffic, variety of cds/books ● extraversion: colorful/decorative, noisy ● agreeableness: strong/weak odor ● no signif cues for neuroticism ● stability in personality across lifespan ○ relatively stable, very stable in short term ● role of genetics/heritability ○ 40-50% of personality determined by genes (twin studies) 4) Motivation- Chapter 4 ● intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation ○ intrinsic - don’t need any external motivation/reward for a certain task, motivated by personal enjoyment ○ extrinsic - external motivation/reward needed to complete task ● overjustification effect ○ enjoyment of a task decreases if you reward something that was intrinsically motivated. even after reward is removed, task is still less enjoyable than it was in the beginning 7 ■ Self Interest: Motivated to act on your attitudes (ex. Kids in Michigan believed the drinking age should be lower but only those that were affected by it/were under 21 did anything to protest it) ● attitude change - learning theory (reinforcement, conditioning, modeling), balance theory, persuasion ○ Conformity → Obedience --> cognitive dissonance → Self-perception → Persuasion ● ○ classical conditioning - type of learning in which, through repeated pairings, a neutral stimulus comes to evoke conditioned response ○ operant conditioning - also called instrumental conditioning, type of learning in which people are more likely to repeat behaviors that have been rewarded and less likely to repeat behaviors that have been punished ○ social learning (observational learning, imitation, vicarious learning) - a type of learning in which people are more likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others rewarded for performing them, and less likely if they have seen others punished ○ attitude polarization - finding that people’s attitudes become more extreme as they reflect on them ○ equilibrium theory and cognitive dissonance - what IS cognitive dissonance? ■ Cognitive Disonance- the discomfort when your behavior does not match your belief ■ ingredients necessary for cognitive dissonance to occur ● feeling of free choice in decision ● outcome/consequences tied to decision ○ Can’t be random ● minimal external justification ○ $1 vs $20 ● cannot go back and change behavior/reverse decision ■ effort justification - the finding that when people suffer or work hard or make sacrifices, they will try to convince themselves that it is worthwhile (hazing example) ■ post-decision dissonance - experienced after making a hard choice, typically reduced by increasing attractiveness of chosen alternative and decreasing attractiveness of rejected ones ■ tyranny of choice - idea that although some choice is better than none, more choice is not always better than less 6) Social influence/persuasion- Chapter 8 ● compliance - types of strategies ○ conditioning/learning theory - pair with +/- stimulus ○ capturing/disrupting attention ■ pique technique - influence technique in which one captures people’s attention, as by making a novel request ● Panhandlers asking for change, pedestrians usually ignore; if Pandhandlers try something NEW to catch attention, ie. ask for 17 cents, then pedestrians more likely to comply ■ disrupt-then-reframe - influence technique in which one disrupts critical thinking by introducing an unexpected element, then reframes message in a positive light 10 ○ norm of reciprocity ■ “if you take care of me, i will take care of you” ■ door-in-the-face - influence based on reciprocity, in which one starts with an inflated request and then retreats to a smaller one that appears to be a concession (a concession is an offer made during a negotiation that tries to appease the interest of the other party, or make the deal more favorable to them)- also gives the person who refused the first request a chance to get rid of any guilt they may feel for saying no ■ that’s-not-all - one first makes an inflated request but, before person can answer yes or no, sweetens the deal by offering a discount or bonus ○ scarcity ■ what’s rare is valuable ■ limited-# - one tells that an item is in short supply ■ fast-approaching-deadline - one tells people an item or a price is only available for a limited time ○ commitment strategies(cognitive dissonance) ■ hazing rituals: After hazing feels more connected and part of the group, enjoys it more because trying to justify why they went through hazing and convinces themselves it was worth it ■ foot-in-the-door technique - influence technique based on commitment, in which one starts with a small request in order to gain eventual compliance with a larger one ■ low-ball technique - influence technique based on commitment, in which one first gets a person to comply with a seemingly low-cost request and only later reveals hidden additional costs--car dealership example ■ bait-and-switch - draw people in with an attractive offer that is unavailable and then switches them to a less attractive offer that is available ■ labeling - one assigns a label to an individual and then requests a favor that is consistent with the label ■ legitimization of paltry favors - requester makes a small amount of aid acceptable “every penny counts” ● Persuasion - source, message, audience ○ source of message ■ similarity, familiarity, likability, cooperativeness, no conflict of interest, authority figure, celebrity, expertise ■ source credibility - source is the individual who delivers the msg; they can be credible or not credible ● sleeper effect - finding that , over time, people separate the msg from the messenger ○ this implies that if 2 sources give a similar message, and one source is more credible than the other, at first people will think the more credible source’s message is better. over time, however, they will forget who gave the message and the less credible source’s message may be taken ● expertise - how much a source knows ● trustworthiness - whether a source will honestly tell you what he or she knows ● covert communicators - people perceived as credible sources because they are arguing against their own personally held attitudes and behaviors ■ source likability - we are persuaded by sources we like 11 ● halo effect - assumption that because people have one desirable trait, they also possess many other ones--example: some may think an attractive person is also generous ○ the message ■ reason versus emotion ● 2 approaches in presenting a persuasive argument - cold, hard facts, or appeal to emotion ○ Central v Peripheral Routes to Persuasion** ■ stealing thunder - practice of revealing potentially incriminating evidence first to negate its impact ■ one-sided vs two-sided ● one-sided more effective when people are less educated or have already made up their minds ■ repetition ● advertisement wear-out - inattention and irritation that occurs after an audience has encountered the same ad too many times ● repetition with variation - repeating same info but in a varied format ○ audience ■ personality, motivation, distraction/fatigue, intelligence, age, moderate intelligence is most likely to be persuaded ■ intelligence ● receptivity - whether you “get” (pay attention to, understand) the message ● yielding - whether you accept the message ● for example, intelligent people w/high self-esteem may be receptive to a message, but not yield it because they’re confident in their own decision ● moderately intelligent people are easiest to persuade (that seems like it could be such an easy multiple choice question...- it was) ■ need for cognition - tendency to engage in and enjoy effort-ful thinking, analysis, and mental problem solving ■ concern about public image - messages focusing on name brands/stylish products appeal to such people, as they are often high self-monitors who want to appear cool ■ age ● impressionable years hypothesis - proposition that adolescents and young adults are more easily persuaded by their elders ■ culture ● individualistic vs collectivistic (US vs Korea) ● US likes ads that focus on person, while Korea likes ones focused on the group ■ overheard messages - if people think they are overhearing something, it is more persuasive than if they were seeing a sales pitch 7) Altruism/prosocial behavior- Chapter 9 ● obedience ○ types of social influence/power ■ authority - direct power ■ threat to reputation, stigma ■ expertise 12 ○ situational variables ■ “running amok” - malaysian culture, refers to behavior of a young man who becomes uncontrollably violent after receiving a blow to his ego ■ lack of self-control ■ often have high self-esteem ○ learning/modeling behavior-modeling: observing and copying or imitating the behaviors of others; rewards and punishments:if the model is rewarded for behaving aggressively, further aggression by model and observer, will be more likely; if the model is punished then the actions are opposite; bobo doll experiment: children readily imitated filmed aggressive models ○ rewards/incentives-punishments can backfire, it increases counter-aggression; people retaliate even when they know there will be negative consequences; reactive anger (reactance) ○ link to emotional arousal-blocking a goal: kids wait for a toy and when they finally get it they are more aggressive; misattribution of arousal: more aroused=more aggressive, more activity, more blood to muscles; emotional regulation increases with age ie domestic violence; aggressive actions can occur without emotional arousal ○ frustration-aggression hypothesis: occurance of aggression presupposes existence of frustration ● evolutionary perspective on aggression, why it may be adaptive in some cases ○ can be path to social status, power ○ competition for resources, good for passing on genes (dominance--> leadership &power -->resources and influence) ○ sexual selection, mate allocation- women prefer socially dominant men and generous men ● aggressive instinct? ○ evidence for/against-Freud argues that human motivation, such as sex and aggression, are based on instincts. 1. For: aggression leads to the stronger individuals procreating, since fighting and mating are similar 2. Against: there is little evidence for an innate aggressive response in humans ○ homicidal fantasies (women with their partner, men with strangers)-people will openly admit that they have fantasies of killing people; 80% of men and 60% of women report this; most involve a male target; more fleeting for women ○ reactance, norms for reciprocity and self-determination ● other topics ○ decline in recent history ○ cultural influences-some cultures are more aggressive than others ○ sexual violence/domestic violence-risk of domestic violence for women who are separated, divorced, or never married is three times higher than the risk for married women ● material on lying/cheating, littering, detection, and effects of media NOT on exam (yay!) ____________________________________________________________________________ ___ 9) Religion/morality- Pretty much only in Lecture ● functions of religion ○ social identity, communication, bonding, cooperation, altruism, handles free rider problems-68% of Americans say religious identity trumps others identities (ethnic, geographic, etc.); identity provides continuity and certainty; ease to generate values, which influence judgments and decisions; bond with other 15 people; significant relationships can be impacted dramatically; free-rider: cooperation requires trust; people are united through norms and standards through behavior that discourage cheating at the threat of external punishment; BUT it can work towards altruism if united through this belief ○ formation/facilitation of large groups and common goals/causes ○ compliance with rules/laws/social norms and in-group loyalty ○ character judgments of others based on religious norms ● effects of religious beliefs and/or belief in God ○ reduced cheating, less dishonesty when primed with vengeful God. ○ increased altruism/prosocial behavior (some situations) ○ personal relationship with god (attachment figure) ○ coping and/or social support from others in religious group/god-God acts as a parental figure (personal relationship with God); compensatory control: people are uncomfortable when they feel that they lack a good sense of what’s going on in the world; lack of control of their own outcomes; terror management: people are scared of death and what happens after death; religion is a coming of terms that we are mortal and the need for certainty of discovering what happens after we are gone ○ moralizing normative behavior ■ association b/w social norms and suicide rates-lower rates of suicide in societies with more social norms because there are more “causes” and “values”; with increased norms comes an increased number of reasons to live ○ competition between groups-competition for resources territory; religion promotes group “deservingness” and “victimization”; religion does not increase violence between groups where there are social/political motives (ex: Israel-Palenstine conflict); when people have other motives to commit violent acts, religion does not act or enforce those motives ● similarities b/w religious people and secular/atheists ○ both describe what are commonly referred to as ‘religious experiences,’ transcend space/time, experience ‘religious emotions’ like awe/inspiration-”religious experiences”: feeling unity with humanity and universe, transcendence of time and space, feelings of unity with not just the rest of people in the world but in the universe. Holy Ground; “elevation” “awe”: emotion that is independent of other existing emotions; may also explain why promoting different beliefs and religions do not always work; when people feel moved (inspired) they are not necessarily going to change their behavior; “awe” is an instinct emotional process and “elevation” is the feeling of being inspired (more of a mental state) ○ both describe feeling connected to humanity, general universe ● discrimination against atheists based on lack of trust-job hiring (teachers, day care, etc.) ● moral foundations (see below) ● moral dumbfounding: The phenomenon when someone will flatly say that something is immoral, yet will not be able to justify with words “why.” This happens more than we realize. ● morality based on emotion (‘intuitiveness’)-”the emotional dog and its rational tail”; moral intuitiveness: logic and reason are afterthoughts; “mind as a lawyer” analogy; we would like to think we are moral and rational when judging other people’s behavior but it’s the opposite ● free will ○ why we don’t have it 16 ■ superficial explanation for behavior," doesn’t trace original causes ■ not measurable ■ only explains a small subset of physical actions linked with effort, but doesn’t explain intention, emotional responses, and a myriad of other mental/psychological/physical states ○ why we might have it ■ our world is not deterministic, and determinism is not equal to causality ■ situations, environment, and even genetics are not definitive, they are probabilistic ■ time might be a poor variable for measuring causality, especially if effects can be demonstrated in the opposite temporal direction ■ mind training (Buddhist monks have increased ‘control’) ■ ‘agency’ rather than ‘free will’ ○ why the belief in free will is beneficial ■ increased prosocial behavior and decreases anti-social behavior ■ useful for organizing society ■ priming “free will” increases ● motivation, effort, altruism, and job performance ■ and decreases ● aggressive behavior and cheating ■ existential paradox: we do know through repeated mental power that we have the power to change our minds; paradox: the idea that free will exists is untenable physically, however, belief in free will exists is beneficial, and through scientific research to change our minds---what?! ■ “transcending;” “looking down from clouds”: Escher and the paradox pictures ____________________________________________________________________________ ___ 10) Emotions/affect- Chapter 6 ● utility of emotions ○ motivation to act ○ broaden/build for positive emotions ○ addressing problematic/dangerous situations for negative emotions ○ communication/social bonding ○ attitude formation ● how emotions impact perception/behavioral responses ○ Being in a good mood can make someone more likely to act altruistically ○ Bad moods/negative emotions can make someone less likely to be altruistic/more likely to make external attributions when coming into conflict with others. ○ ^Example: Road rage. Someone cuts you off-->”This asshole can’t drive” instead of “Maybe they’re in a rush to be somewhere important” ○ hedonic treadmill ■ positive emotion can only boost you for so long. as time goes on, your emotional state relaxes back to the state you were in before the positive stimulus occurred.--> homeostatic state of emotions ● affective forecasting 17 ■ American Flag ■ Hand sanitizer ● perceptions of income inequality/economic behavior ○ people didn’t realize income inequality exists and it is steadily rising; agreed by both liberals/conservatives ○ causes → individual effort, ability, and talent; conservatives are more likely than liberals to make internal attribution for economic failure ○ difference is overshadowed by similarity because americans as a whole are more likely to make an internal attribution ● motivated reasoning and skepticism for incongruent political arguments/evidence ○ People are all motivated skeptics, they will search for information that confirms their beliefs (Confirmation Bias) and believe congruent arguments are ○ more valid. [Lec11: Slide 61] ○ motivated skepticism - increased skepticism that is contrary to what you believe and come up with more counter-argments against anything that is against what you believe; assign ideology to a source that is against your beliefs ○ congruent arguments: rated more “valid” ○ confirmation bias: seeking info → time spent, counter-arguments ● ‘hot’ (automatic) vs ‘cold’ (conscious/rational) processing for political info ○ cold - conscious rational mental processes ○ hot - automatic, explicit tendencies ● system justification ○ when threatened, status quo is confirmed: belief in a just world; conservatives usually feel more threatened; when people are suffering they are more likely to stick with the status quo because of familiarity and it takes more energy to move to a new society where things work differently or work within society that you currently live in to change things ● the media ○ “Don’t shape attitudes/opinions, or voting behavior" because of "source derogation, motivated reasoning" [Lec11:Slide 65]. ○ Media is capable of setting the agenda, of what matters at the moment [Lec11:Slide 66]. ○ fatigue and desensitization: if you watch the news every day, the likelihood that any one news broadcast is going to make a difference decreases; people are more skeptical of counter evidence and will create more counter agruments ____________________________________________________________________________ __ 13) inter-group behavior, stereotypes/prejudice ● minimal group paradigm, ingroup-outgroup bias ○ intra-group cohesion norms vs inter-group competition heuristic prisoner’s dilemma - norms for competition, FAE for out group members, reactance if group is hurt we feel the need to retaliate, risky shift ○ social identity theory, bonding, support, fulfillment, basking in reflected glory ○ socialization, trans-generational norms, observation/learning ○ historical conflict, bias in learning (focus on in-group eg. US-Iraq War), in-group love & out-group hate (no connection between love/patriotism for in group and hate for out-group) ● robber’s cave study - know variables, effects, increasing/reducing conflict ○ two groups of with minimal differences showed conflict beyond regular camp activities 20 ○ Increase conflict: Counselors told each group good things about the other group - kids didn’t buy into it. ■ they tried to increase noncompetitive contact among groups (watching tv together, eating together) but that increased conflicts even more. ○ to reduce conflict: set common goal and common enemy ■ Common goal - both groups had to work together for a specific task. ■ Superordinate goals - goals that can be achieved only by cooperating and working with others. ○ realistic conflict theory--> groups will only compete when there is something to compete over ● stereotypes - what are they? (schemas based on group membership) origins: learning theory (parents and media), genetics(innate to reject outsiders; more likely to share views with someone they are genetically related to) ○ Origins (from book): ■ Prejudice is both learned through socialization and innate. ● We often learn through socialization, information about another group and which groups and characteristics are disliked. ● Other studies also suggest that even children can show signs of prejudice. ○ measurement, implicit/explicit stereotypes/attitudes ■ Measurement: ● Physciological signs: facial muscles, skin conductance ○ ABC’s of intergroup relationships: ■ Affective component - prejudice ■ Behavioral component - Discrimination ■ Cognitive component - stereotyping ○ cognitive miser perspective on stereotypes: stereotypes categorize people which increases our processing speed when analyzing people ■ Categorizing is an easy and efficient way of simplifying the world and reducing mental effort. ○ motivation to maintain stereotypes (motivated reasoning) - in the face of counter- evidence we are motivated to maintain stereotypes and create subtyping - separate category for people who do not fit sterotype ○ scapegoat theory (effects for majority racial groups with low SES) ○ stereotype threat- knowledge of existing stereotype will cause people to behave in a way that confirms the stereotype. ie women in math/science ■ people don’t like being stereotyped and strive hard to show that they do not fit the negative steretypes of their group. ■ This can create self-defeating prophecies - prediction that ensures, by the behavior it generates, that it will not come true. ● Example: people with a “baby face” are presumed as more honest and much nicer that other people. Since this takes away from the social norms that men should be tough and masculine, boys with baby faces try to act tougher and commit more crimes that those that portray masculine features ○ reducing prejudice/discrimination & use of stereotypes (jigsaw classroom) ■ motives for overcoming prejudice: ● dedication to equality and a corresponding belief that prejudice is morally wrong. 21 ● appreciation that expressing prejudice could provoke social disapproval. ● People who are only externally motivated to respond without prejudice report low-prejudice attitudes and beliefs when they have to provide their repsonses out loud to an experimenter or another person, but they are more prejudiced when they are allowed to write their answers. ● People who are internally motivated to respond without prejudce report low-prejudice attitudes regardless of how they present their views. ■ Contact - ● prejudice can be reduced when people of different groups are put in contact with each other. The more they get to know about each other, the less prejudiced they become. ■ Subordinate goals - ● When two groups work on common goals, they are more likely to cooperate and reduce their prejudice towards others. ● Jigsaw classroom - a cooperative learning technique for reducing feelings of prejudice. ● Some contribution from each stuident in a jigsaw classroom is necessary to complete an assignment. ● Decreases racial prejudice and increases academic performance. ● each person learns as much about their assigned topic, students from different groups who are assigned the same topic meet to discuss their knowledge and then they go back to their groups to share what they have learned. ____________________________________________________________________________ ___ 14) Gender & Sexuality- Chapter 12 ● stereotypical ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ traits, roles, behavior ○ masculinity(instrumental), femininity(expressive), androgyny-female or male with high degree of feminine & masculine traits ■ doesn’t fit into just one role ○ feminine: pure, altruistic, passive, emotional ○ masculine: aggressive, strong, independent, unemotional ○ how does this impact behavior? stereotype threat ● biological sex vs gender ○ Sex is defined by physiology (e.g., genitalia) [Lec13-1: Slide 4]. ○ Gender is influenced by biological, social, and cognitive factors [Lec13-1: Slide 4]. ● feminism - attitudes, beliefs, and lack of consistency ○ few will say they are feminists, yet most people hold feminist ideals/beliefs (equal pay - 95% and maternity leave - 85%) ● gender differences ○ Men and women are more similar than different ○ Biggest differences: aggression (Men more physical), sexuality (men: bigger sex drive), communication, emotions (women feel more intense emotions), cognitive abilities, friendship networks (face to face vs side by side), helping behavior(men are more likely to help) ○ Men: independent (side by side) shared activities and groups 22 ■ Behaviors we’ve seen reinforced ■ whats socially normative ○ Confirming self schema: we like those who like us, and its rewarding to have these people around ■ Liking and attraction increases to the degree that we feel its reciprocated ■ Norm of reciprocity: Someone does us a favor and we feel like we need to do it back. So if someone likes us we feel we should like them back ● Similarity- we are attracted to those who are similar to us. ■ Myth: opposites attract- They don’t ■ self-monitoring: ability to change one’s behavior for different situations. ■ matching hypothesis: the proposition that people tend to pair up with others who are equally attractive. ■ Evolutionary explanation: people who preferred to form bonds with people very different from themselves might tend to leave behind fewer offspring than people who attached themselves to others like themselves, ○ Social Rewards- ■ reinforcement theory: people and animals will perform behaviors that have been rewareded more than they will perform other behaviors. ● people like others who are rewarding to them- those who make them feel good. ○ ● situational forces - proximity (mere exposure), physical warmth, misattribution of physical arousal ○ Proximity: As people are closer (in physical distance), general liking goes up ○ Familiarity: The more time you spend with someone the more you like them because then its easier to predict their behavior (we like when we know what the other person is going to do) ○ Physical Warmth (hot coffee example) translates to social warmth ○ Misattribution of Physical Arousal: When they are physically aroused (hear their own heart beat, experience something new, walk on a shaky bridge, etc.) they think that it is because they are attracted to the person near them. Think that they are aroused because they are attracted to someone instead of because of the situation they are in. ● similarity (features, personality, demographics, etc) ○ matching hypothesis ■ we are good at seeking out friends/romantic partners who are physically like us; attractive people seek out other attractive people ● “matching hypothesis”- we know our social worth and reproductive fitness ● Evolutionary perspective: People with the best genes will beat out others with worse genes and pair together ■ Most likely to be attracted to someone who fits your demographic: socio- economic, age, religion etc. ● demographics are more important than personality ■ Features: Halo effect, heuristic ■ Ideal features/standards vs. actual attraction ● ideal standards may not matter as much ● Implicit preferences: “Mind as a Lawyer” 25 ○ Predetermined standards can quickly disappear when presented in an interpersonal state. Meet someone you like and think back and change guidelines of your “type” to include them ○ conscious/rational part of the mind isn’t initiated until after you realize you are building an attraction to someone ● rejection - interferes with cognitive functioning, motivation, can increase aggression/anti- social behavior and decrease altruism ○ rejection literally hurts/feels cold ■ Brain processes mimic physical pain and people also report temp being cold ○ rejection sensitivity - self fulfilling prophesy, behavioral confirmation, expectations for social rejection lead to reality ■ When we are rejected it throws us off balance b/c we feel like we need to be connected to others ● Its an existential threat ● rejection sensitivity- accumulated effects of rejection leads to anxiety and self-fulfilling prophecy that we always expect to be rejected. ● Increase in aggression ○ rejected people are less generous, cooperative, and less helpful than others, and they are more willing to cheat or break rules of good behavior. ○ When people feel socially excluded, they are led to aggressive behavior. ○ Aggression can also lead to exclusion: people usually don’t want to be associated with or around those who possess aggressive tendencies. ● paradox of social norms (similarity vs norm-violation) in predicting attraction ○ Usually people are attracted to others who have similar values, trust and social competence. The like people they can easily understand and predict behavior ○ HOWEVER, Norm-violations, creativity & risk-taking make men more romantically attractive ● loneliness ○ People reduce feelings of loneliness and increase social networking through the internet ○ Parallel feelings for both the virtual and real world ■ If you are depressed you have less fulfilling interactions in real life and online ● Two types of loneliness: ○ Situation: temporary loneliness - a person moves to a new place adn doesn’t know anyone .(quantity) ○ Disposition: long term - A person who is socially connected but perceive themselves to be lonely (quality ● body responses to loneliness: ○ these ppl sleep as much as nonlonely ppl, but they don’t feel refreshed when they wake up, they usually feel chronically tired. ○ they take longer to recover from stress, illness, or injury. ○ Don’t get the rest they need - poor sleep. ○ more prone to waking up at night or not being able to sleep - insomnia. ____________________________________________________________________________ ___ 16) Relationships- Chapter 12 26 ● love - physical effects (acts as a drug- higher level of neurotransmitter PEA), passionate vs companionate love ● Passionate: strong feelings of longing, desire, and excitement towards a special person. also called romantic love. Starts high but dwindles down. ● Companionate love: also known as affectionate love, mutual understanding and caring to make the relationship succeed. it makes people want to spend as much time as possible together. It is less stronger emotionally, more calmer and serene. means perceiving the other person as your soul mate or special partner. Mutual understanding, are each others best friends, essential to a successful long-term marriage. ● sternberg’s triangular theory of love ○ Contrasts the 2 types of love ideas. proposed that love is composed of 3 different parts: ■ 1. intimacy: feeling of closeness, mutual understanding and mutual concern for each others welfare and happiness. empathy is important. ■ 2. passion: emotional state characterized by high bodily arousal such as increased heart rate and blood pressure. ■ 3. commitment: a conscious decision that remains constant. ■ these 3 are not different kinds of love. Any given love relationship can mix those 3 ingredients. The 3 different parts go on the sides of triangles and can make relationships such as “high in intimacy but low in commitment” ● Intimacy + Passion = Romantic Love ● Intimacy + Commitment = Companionate Love ● Passion + Commitment = Fatuous Love ● All 3 = Consummate Love ● social exchange theory - romantic ‘marketplace’ ○ outcomes vs costs ■ Outcomes = Rewards - Costs ■ ex. Costs: taking away time from hobbies, family, friends, etc. This gets factored into the equation ■ Relationships that last have 5:1 of rewards:costs ● fairness/equity ○ Relationships with more equity and fairness, feeling on the same plane as your partner, do better ● communal vs exchange relationships ○ exchange - expect something in return for something you do for the other person; can be toxic in long-term relationships ■ Norm of reciprocity is bad in romantic relationships ○ communal - don’t expect anything in return, do something because you want to do something for other person without selfish concern ● comparison level & comparison level for alternatives [ Lecture 14-2 slide 6] ○ predicts satisfaction/dependence ■ Satisfaction = Outcome - Comparison Level (CL) ● satisfied if positive ■ Dependence = Outcomes- CLalt ● Dependent if positive ● If CLalt is higher than Outcomes than partner is not dependent ● Even if they are getting more than expected out of the relationship they are likely to leave if they think there are better alternatives ● CL-what you think you should be getting, Outcome-What you are getting CLalt-what you could get elsewhere 27 Conclusion To summarize my main points: A few lucky men are at the top of society and enjoy the culture’s best rewards. Others, less fortunate, have their lives chewed up by it. Culture uses both men and women, but most cultures use them in somewhat different ways. Most cultures see individual men as more expendable than individual women, and this difference is probably based on nature, in whose reproductive competition some men are the big losers and other men are the biggest winners. Hence it uses men for the many risky jobs it has. Men go to extremes more than women, and this fits in well with culture using them to try out lots of different things, rewarding the winners and crushing the losers. Culture is not about men against women. By and large, cultural progress emerged from groups of men working with and against other men. While women concentrated on the close relationships that enabled the species to survive, men created the bigger networks of shallow relationships, less necessary for survival but eventually enabling culture to flourish. The gradual creation of wealth, knowledge, and power in the men’s sphere was the source of gender inequality. Men created the big social structures that comprise society, and men still are mainly responsible for this, even though we now see that women can perform perfectly well in these large systems. What seems to have worked best for cultures is to play off the men against each other, competing for respect and other rewards that end up distributed very unequally. Men have to prove themselves by producing things the society values. They have to prevail over rivals and enemies in cultural competitions, which is probably why they aren’t as lovable as women. The essence of how culture uses men depends on a basic social insecurity. This insecurity is in fact social, existential, and biological. Built into the male role is the danger of not being good enough to be accepted and respected and even the danger of not being able to do well enough to create offspring. The basic social insecurity of manhood is stressful for the men, and it is hardly surprising that so many men crack up or do evil or heroic things or die younger than women. But that insecurity is useful and productive for the culture, the system. Again, I’m not saying it’s right, or fair, or proper. But it has worked. The cultures that have succeeded have used this formula, and that is one reason that they have succeeded instead of their rivals. Haidt 5 Foundations: 1) Harm/Care 2) Fairness/Justice 3) In Group Loyalty/ Reciprocity 4) Respect 5) Purity 30 31