Solved Short Questions on General Psychology - Exam 3 | PSYC 101, Study notes of Psychology

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Psych TEST 3

← Study Questions for Exam 3 (Fall 2013) ← Exam 3 will be on personality, psychological disorders, treatment of disorders, and social psychology. These topics are covered in chapters 11, 13, 14, and 15 of the textbook and in the lectures since Exam 2.

1. Define personality. Elaborate on each key word in the definition.  Definition: Personality is the distinctive set of consistent traits  Distinctive- individual differences  Consistent- across time and situations
2. Describe the traits in the Big 5 model of personality. I. Neuroticism- (calm/relaxed - neurotic) II. Conscientiousness- (disorganized – conscientious) III. Extraversion (introverted – extroverted) IV. Agreeableness (disagreeable – agreeable) V. Openness to experience (close minded – open minded)
3. Compare and contrast self-report inventories and projective tests of personality traits.  Self report inventories are where the a person fills out a quiz or a survey themselves  Projective tests are responses to ambiguous stimuli o Ink blots o “Look at this picture and tell a story”
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the popular tests that claim to measure personality?  Self report inventories

 Advantages- quick, inexpensive, easy to administer, objective scoring - - empirical data on reliability and validity  Disadvantages- response biases: social desirability bias, response sets, deliberate deception  Projective tests: o Advantages- can promote self reflection, may be used to obtain subjective info o Disadvantages- response biases: deliberate deception and social desirability bias, difficulty to score, affected by the scorer’s biases, low validity, low reliability

5. Personality emerges from the interaction internal and external factors. a. Describe in detail research on specific internal factors that can contribute to personality traits.  Genetically influenced  Infant temperament a. Emotional and behavioral tendencies present at birth b. The inborn foundations of personality c. Inborn does not mean unchangeable d. May set a range of possible responses to situations  Children are not born as blank slates, they are born with personality traits o Autonomic Activity  Heart Rate Variability (HRV) is a conservation measure of autonomic reactions. HRV is correlated with personality traits, especially neuroticism and extraversion  Your heart has a regular pattern but not the same exact time between beats  Biology doesn’t determine personality completely, but it creates a base line  Can effect core affect

o Brain activity o Cognitive Patterns  ABC Model: A- activating event (Stimulus) B- beliefs C- Consequences (emotional and/or behavioral) A - > B - > C  Example: A- Ken asks Barbie to go out and she says no B- Ken thinks its NBD, he will just ask someone else C-Ken feels ok and foes out with friends  Get different behaviors because of different beliefs  Describe in detail several perspectives on personality. Include specific concepts, not vague descriptions.  Myer Briggs Type Indicator- take a test then get a 4 letter code for your type, either introvert (I) or extrovert (E), etcetera  The Barnum Effect0 results atre always broad so that anyone thinks they could fit in it (example horoscopes are never too detailed or fully negative)  How does the social cognitive perspective serve as a model of interaction of factors affecting personality? Include specific concepts, not just a vague answer.  Bandura’s social (external) cognitive (internal) perspective emphasizes the interaction of factors  Behavior-environmental-personal/cognitive factors- behavior- environmental (circle)

6. What is abnormal? Describe in detail criteria of abnormal behavior. Provide examples to illustrate the criteria.  Abnormal is a “questionable” or “iffy” behavior on an extreme end of a continuum, (a very high or a very low) ← Three “D’s” of abnormal behavior  Deviant o Violation od social norm o Statistically extreme  Often in terms of numbers, very few others have the same experience  Distressing

o Personal suffering- how you are experiencing this abnormal behavior o Is it troubling or upsetting to you?  Dysfunctional o Maladaptive behavior- behavior interrupting or disrupting your life

7. What is important to know about each of the following concepts related to psychological disorders?  Diagnosis -Identifying specific symptoms & problems  Match observed symptoms & problems with diagnostic criteria in the DSM  Symptom: Abnormalities in behavior, emotion, and/or thought  Problem: Difficulties caused by symptoms  DSM- Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, criteria for over 200 disorders  Prevalence- 74% of people are normal and only 6% are severe disorders, even though we may thing something is wrong the vast majority do not have problems; #1 anxiety disorders such as OCD, PTSD, phobias, panic; #2 mood disorders such as depression or bipolar; # substance related disorders  Etiology: Causal factors and developmental history of a disorder
8. Describe the diathesis-stress model. Then use it for each of the following: Both diathesis (vulnerability, internal risk factors) and stress (external risk factors) contribute to a person’s behavior or symptoms. You matched observed symptoms with the diagnostic criteria  Explain how this model is related to this theme of our course: Behavior is determined by multiple causes. The diathesis-stress model is a psychological theory that explains behavior as both a result of biological and genetic factors ("nature"), and life experiences ("nurture"). Internal risk factors which increase likelihood such as genetics, brain structure, neurotransmitters, and cognitive patterns (diathesis) External risk factors such as loss, failure, conflict, stress, pressure and change (stress)  Explain why the following statement is NOT correct: Some disorders are caused by biology, and others are caused by the environment. All disorders are caused by a combination of both internal and external factors, biological and environmental factors.

 Explain why the following statement is NOT correct: If an environment is stressful enough, then everyone in it will develop psychological symptoms. Stress and environmental factors may precipitate symptoms if someone has a diathesis. The effect of the environment on our behavior depends on how we think and process information.  Use the diathesis-stress model to organize information about the numerous known risk factors for schizophrenia and for the most common psychological disorders. Diathesis (pessimism, tendency to over think and ruminate)

• Stress (got a f on a test, broke up with girlfriend) = Symptoms (sad, feels worthless, doesn’t want to do things he usually enjoys

9. Mood disorders  Organize the information you have from lectures and the textbook Symptoms: hopelessness, low energy, insomnia, poor appetite, and low self-esteem Risk factors: genetics, neurochemical, cognitive, personality, and life events Comorbidity: anxiety, PTSD, eating disorders, ADHD  What general ideas do you need to know about mood disorders? o Mood disorders are disturbances in the mood of an individual o Major types:  Major depressive disorder  Dysthymia  Bipolar disorder o Risk factors: genetics, neurochemical, cognitive, personality, life events  Organize all the specific details about these disorders around those general concepts  Compare and contrast bipolar disorder and major depression. o Bipolar disorder has extreme highs and extreme lows, maniac vs. depressive episodes o Major depressive disorder is persistent, disabling sadness o Depression is extremely common, whereas the lifetime prevalence of bipolar disorder is 1.0-2.5% o Both types of mood disorders are associated with greatly elevated rated of suicide

10. Schizophrenia  What are the primary symptoms of schizophrenia? o Delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and deterioration of adaptive behavior  How is schizophrenia different from bipolar disorder? o People with bipolar disorder usually can lead fairly “normal” lives, hold down a regular job, and have a happy relationship and family, even be very successful in a career. People with bipolar disorder do not hear voices that aren’t there o Many people with schizophrenia often have a more difficult time functioning in normal society. Because of the nature of the disorder, people with schizophrenia often have a hard time staying in treatment, and an even harder time with social relationships, family, friends, and work. o Bipolar disorder focuses on the extreme highs and lows in emotion while schizophrenics have more delusions and hallucinations  How is schizophrenia different from DID? o Dissociative Identity Disorder is characterized by a severely dissociative, or separated, identity. Schizophrenia is characterized by the splitting, or breaking, of the mind’s capacity to function. They are not even remotely the same thing. o People with schizophrenia hear or see things that aren’t there and believe things that aren’t true, often tied into a complex, irrational belief system. They do not have multiple identities or personalities. People with DID do not have delusion beliefs, outside of their multiple personalities or identities. The only voices they hear or talk to are these identities.
11. There were two lectures on psychological disorders.  What were the most important ideas in the first lecture (Nov. 11)? Elaborate on each of them. What is abnormal? o General criteria o Specific criteria: Diagnosis Prevalence of Psychological Disorders

o 12-month prevalence o Most common psych disorders Causes of Psychological Disorders o Etiology o Diathesis-stress model  What were the most important ideas in the second lecture (Nov. 18)? Elaborate. o What is an anxiety disorder? o Where does anxiety come from? o Anxiety Disorders:  Generalized Anxiety Disorder  Phobic Disorder  Panic Disorder  Obsessive Compulsive Disorder  Post Traumatic Stress Disorder o Mood Disorders  Symptoms  Prevalence  Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)  Dysthymic Disorder  Bipolar Disorder  Suicidal Ideation ← How can you connect these two lectures? How are concepts similar, and what was distinctive? ←

12. Treatment: What are the most important things to know about treatment of psychological disorders? List 3 or 4 main ideas. Then organize details from the lecture and textbook under each of these ideas. How are specific details relevant to them?  Biomedical Treatment- something that will change you biologically o Medication (drug therapy)

 Psychological treatment- not focused directly on biology, focused on something in your mind, Cognition, behavior, emotion o Psychological treatment o Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) Therapists must show empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard; if psychological disorders clear up on their own, it is a spontaneous remission

13. Describe how understanding the diathesis-stress model helps us to think about different treatments for psychological disorders. This model shows how behavior is determined by multiple causes. That helps us in understanding treatment in knowing that it can be addressed from multiple angles.
14. Describe the four categories of psychotherapeutic drugs presented in the textbook. What are the advantages and disadvantages of drug therapies?  Antianxiety drugs- reduce tension, apprehension and nervousness  Antipsychotic drugs- used to gradually reduce psychotic symptoms, including hyperactivity, mental confusion, hallucinations and delusions  Antidepressant drugs- gradually elevate mood and help bring people out of depression  Mood stabilizers- drugs used to control mood swings in patients with bipolar mood disorders  Advantages of drug therapy:  Effectiveness  Ease of access  Ease of use  Disadvantages: o Side effects o Adherence problems (trouble sticking with treatment because of side effects) o Tolerance (need to increase dose) o Dependence o Withdrawal symptoms o Relapse (when stop taking medication, things start to get worse)
15. What is ECT? When, where and how is it used? What are the advantages and disadvantages of ECT?

 Electroconvulsive therapy- biomedical treatment in which electric shock is used to produce a cortical seizure accompanied by convulsions  Used in the 1930s when a Hungarian psychiatrist believed that schizophrenia and epilepsy could not coexist in the same body (turned out to be a false theory)  This psychiatrist would induce epileptic-like seizures in schizophrenic patients  ECT has been long controversial and its use has declined in the 1960s and 1970s.  Now used as a biomedical treatment in which electro shock is used to produce cortical seizures accompanies by convulsions  Used on patients whose anti depressant meds do not work  ECT is administered in a carefully monitored medical environment with a nurse and multiple doctors present to care for the patient  High relapse rates and short term side effects such as memory loss, impaired attention other cognitive defects

16. Why is it not accurate to describe psychotherapy as just talking about yourself? It involves verbal interactions intended to enhance a client’s self knowledge and thus promote healthful changes in personality and behavior
17. Compare and contrast psychotherapy and medication in terms of their effectiveness as treatments for psychological disorders.  Medicine has a much higher chance of relapse compared to psychotherapy  Equivalent effectiveness in the short term  Psychotherapy prevents relapse and is effective in both the short and long term  Differs from medicine in that once you get better you stay better *mixing the two does not make it any more effective
18. CBT  What is CBT? Cognitive Behavioral Therapy- very structured approach to what happening to individuals and changing individuals  What are the goals of CBT? Help clients change maladaptive patterns of thinking and behaving  Describe the strategies used in CBT.

 Cognitive interventions: examine your thinking, challenge negative thinking, replace incorrect beliefs with more realistic ones  Behavior modification technique: self monitoring, identify desired behavior, homework assignments to practice, recognize reward improvement  Problem focused- effect or outcomes of the symptoms, addressing difficulties in the moment,  Present focused- not going back to check what has happened in the past  Evidence based  Explain the ABC model and the cognitive triad as they relate to CBT.  Triangle of thoughts  The cognitive triad is the interaction of thoughts behaviors and emotions  CBT helps you be aware of these things and their interactions ABC is when our beliefs connect activating event and consequences  Why is CBT better than medication in terms of long-term effectiveness?  CBT changes your behavior replacing incorrect beliefs with more realistic ones

19. What is social psychology? Describe its basic principles within the areas of social cognition, social motivation, and social influence.  Social psychology is the study of the individual in social context; study of how people think about, relate to and influence one another  Basic principles:  Social motivations  We want to feel good about ourselves  We want to belong  Social cognition  How you think about yourself and others affects your reaction to situations

 Social influence  Situations have a powerful effect on us  We tend to underestimate the impact of the situation on our behavior

20. Describe important aspects of social cognition, including subjectivity, attributions, person perception, cognitive dissonance, attitudes, stereotypes, and prejudice. Attribution s- inferences about cause (internal/personal, external/situational)  1. Fundamental attribution error- when explaining another person’s behavior, we tend to o Overestimate personal factors o Underestimate situational causes (ex. Right place, right time)  2. Defensive Attributions o Self serving bias  Success is personal  Failure is situational o Blame victims for their own misfortune o Belief in a just world (we tend to think the world is fait, and people get what they deserve) Subjectivity: we are sense-making creatures constantly interpreting things, behavior in a given situation is not determined solely by the objective reality of a situation, but rather how we perceive it Cognitive Dissonance: Related attitudes or beliefs are inconsistent that is when they contradict each other. You would predict greatest cognitive dissonance in a person who is led to lie by a simple request to do so (no payment)
21. Describe the three predictable phenomena that occur when people are in groups: Conformity, deindividuation, and diffusion of responsibility. Conformity- we adjust our behavior to fit the norm, role, and/or example set by others De individuation- sense of anonymity Diffusion of responsibility- no one person is responsible for a group situation if no one is “in charge”

 Describe research on these phenomena.  Describe examples in detail to illustrate these concepts. For example, use them to explain behavior of people at a football game, on Franklin Street, in a large lecture class, in a small work group, etc.

22. What are the important conclusions that can be drawn from research on the following phenomena: Obedience, bystander effect, groupthink, group polarization, social loafing  Obedience - a form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority  Milgram studied this tendency to obey authority figures  Measured the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscience  The experiments were also controversial, and considered by some scientists to be unethical and physically or psychologically abusive  The level of shock that the participant was willing to deliver was used as the measure of obedience. Many people delivered the maximum shock even after hearing the subjects cries of pain because the authority figure told them to do so  Bystander effect- people are less likely to provide needed help when they are in groups than when they are alone  Your probability of getting help decreases as group size increases  John Darley and Bibb Latante (1968)- students in individual cubicles connected by an intercom participated in discussion groups of three sixes  Early in the discussion, a student who was an experimental accomplice hesitantly mentioned that he was prone to seizures. Later in the discussion, the same accomplice fakes a severe seizure and cried out for help  Although a majority of participants sought assistance for the student, the tendency to seek help declined with increasing group size  Groupthink - occurs when members of a cohesive group emphasize concurrence at the expense of critical thinking in arriving at a decision

 Irving Janis (1972) first described groupthink in his effort to explain how President Kennedy and his advisors could have miscalculated so badly in deciding to invade the Bay of Pigs in 1961  When groups get caught up in group think, members suspend their critical judgment and the group starts censoring dissent as the pressure to conform increases. Soon, everyone starts to think alike.  Group polarization - occurs when the group discussion strengthens a group’s dominant point of view and produces a shift to a more extreme decision in that direction  Group polarization does not involve widening the gap between factions in a group, rather it can contribute to consensus in a group (group think)  Social loafing - a reduction in effort by individuals when they work in groups as compared to when they work by themselves  Latante (1979) measured the sound output produced by subjects who were asked to cheer or clap as loudly as they could o When subjects thought they were working in larger groups, their individual output declined. o As group size increases, the responsibility for getting a job done is divided among more people, and many group members ease up because their individual contribution is less recognizable. Thus, social loafing occurs where individuals can “hide in the crowd”

23. Compare and contrast: Stereotype, prejudice, discrimination  Stereotypes - widely held belief that people have certain characteristics due to their membership in a particular group  Prejudice - a negative attitude held towards members of a group  Discrimination - behaving differently, usually unfairly, towards the members of a group
24. Discuss key factors in interpersonal attraction. Compare and contrast these factors with those that are related to attitude change and persuasion.  Interpersonal attraction refers to positive feelings towards another person  Key factors in attraction: o Physical attractiveness

 The matching hypothesis proposes that males and females of approximately equal physical attractiveness are likely to select each other as partners o Similarity effects  Married and dating couples tend to be similar in age, race, religion, social class, education, intelligence, physical attractiveness and attitudes o Reciprocity effects  Reciprocity involves liking those who show that they like you o Romantic ideals  These ideals are the personal qualities that one hopes to find in a partner, such as warmth, good looks, loyalty, high status, a sense of humor, and so forth

25. Provide your own examples of the following strategies: Foot-in-the-door, lowball, and reciprocity norm.  Foot-in-the-door technique is a compliance tactic that involves getting a person to agree to a large request by first setting them up by having that person agree to a modest request  Example: groups seeking a donation will ask people to sign a petition first  Lowball technique involves getting someone to commit a seemingly attractive position before its hidden costs are revealed o Very deceptive, the name for this technique comes from a common practice in automobile sales, in which a customer is offered a terrific bargain on a car. The bargain price gets the customer to commit to buying a car. Soon after this commitment is made, the dealer starts revealing some hidden costs. Once they have committed to buying a car, most customers are unlikely to cancel the deal.  Reciprocity mean - the rule that we should pay back in kind what we receive from others

o The reciprocity norm is used in social influence efforts o Groups seeking donations send address labels, key rings, and other small gifts with their pleas. Salespeople using the reciprocity principle distribute free samples to prospective customers. o When people manipulate the reciprocity norm, they usually give something of minimal value in the hopes of receiving far more in return