CRIM 2212 Study Guide: Property Crimes, Occupational Crimes, and Cybercrimes - Prof. Janic, Study notes of Criminal Justice

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STUDY GUIDE: CRIM 2212

Monday APRIL 4, 2011 EXAM # Property Crimes -four types of scams -four ways to prevent auto theft -three motives/reasons for arson -three types of vandalism

• three types of burglars -three types of situation dynamics of burglary (Chapter 6) -three types of target-selection strategies used to steal motor vehicles (Chapter 7) -four types of shoplifters Occupational and Organizational Crimes -three types of corporate (non-environmental) crimes -four types of environmental crimes -four types of medical fraud Chapter 8 -three types of white-collar crimes as identified by Friedrichs Computer/Cybercrimes -four types of computer crimes -three difficulties police have investigating cybercrimes

MOTIVES/REASONS FOR ARSON

Vandalism-motivated Arson: Vandalism-motivated arson is defined as malicious or mischievous firesetting that results in damage to property. One of the most common targets is schools or school property and educational facilities. Vandals also frequently target abandoned structures and flammable vegetation. Vandalism-motivated serial arsonists set fires whenever the opportunity arises but most will be set after work or school hours or on weekends. Excitement-motivated Arson: Offenders motivated by excitement include seekers of thrills, attention, recognition, and rarely, but importantly, sexual gratification. (The stereotypical arsonist who sets fires for sexual gratification is quite rare). Potential targets of the excitement motivated arsonist run full spectrum from so-called nuisance fires to occupied apartment houses at nighttime. Fire fighters are known to set fires so they can engage in the suppression effort. Security guards have set fires to relieve boredom and gain recognition. Crime Concealment- Motivated Arson: Arson is the secondary criminal activity in this motivational category. The fire is set for the purpose of covering up a murder or burglary or to eliminate evidence left at a crime scene. Other examples include fires set to destroy business records to conceal cases of embezzlement and the many cases of auto theft arson where the fire is set to destroy evidence. Profit-Motivated Arson: Arsonists in this category expect to profit from their fire setting, either directly for monetary gain or more indirectly to profit from a goal other than money. Examples of direct monetary gain include insurance fraud liquidating property, dissolving businesses, destroying inventory, parcel clearance, or to gain employment. The later is exemplified by the a case of a construction worker wanting to rebuild an apartment complex he destroyed, or an unemployed laborer seeking employment as a forest fire fighter, or as a logger to salvage burned timber. Arsonists have set fire to western forests to rent their equipment as part of the suppression effort. Revenge-motivated Arson: Revenge-motivated arson is done in retaliation for some wrong done against the arsonist, real or imagined, by society, a person or group of persons, or some establishment. It may be a well-planned, single occurrence or a serial arsonist taking revenge on society with little or no planning. The victim of this type of arson usually has a history of conflicts with the perpetrator, and the arson tends to be intraracial. Females tend to target personal possessions, as do romantically slighted revenge-takers. Females tend to use readily accessible flammables, while men prefer Molotov cocktails and/or excessive amounts of accelerant.

Extremist-motivated Arson This type of arson is done to further a cause. Categories such as terrorism, riots and discrimination fall under this distinction. The target usually represents the antithesis of the offender's belief. It is usually organized, planned and done in groups. Explosive devices such as Molotov cocktails are commonly used. The offender is often readily identified with the cause or group behind this crime. BURGLARY Types of burglars There are four basic types of burglars, opportunity, smashers, prowlers and professionals. Opportunistic Burglar Opportunist thieves will always check for that easy, quick and petty weak entry point. The look for a door or window left open and seizes the opportunity. If they see an opportunity to steal something they go for it. These spur of the moment thieves almost always appear from thin air, snatching items for their own. Items like bicycles and laptop computers, or even settling for less expensive items like CDs or sunglasses. Smashers The full name of this type is "Smash and Dash" and like the Opportunity criminal often this kind reacts on the spur of the moment. He sees the opportunity and "goes for it". Such a burglar will walk along, find a likely looking house and (depending on the neighborhood - go around the side or back of the house) and either kick in the door or smash a window. Once inside such a criminal will often just find one or two items seize them and make the dash. They do not linger and do a thorough job of going through your stuff. Smashers tend to be either young and scared or seriously along into drug addiction/ alcoholism/insanity/all of the above. Smasher Burglars are the majority of thieves you see on “Dumbest Criminals” TV shows. Prowlers Burglars A Prowler is a more sophisticated professional than your average Smasher or Opportunity Thief. They will have networks of connections to transport their stolen goods through, and often apply more research behind planning and organizing a burglary. A Prowler is like the older, wiser, more mature. They usually carry some type of break-in tool to help reduce the noise of breaking glass or kicked-in doors. Quite often, they apply a few tricks to help make entry easier, and often leave a trail of mess behind like dumped-out drawers or uprooted closets. Their lack of fear makes them more dangerous because they may become physically violent when confronted or surprised. They can also become far more aggressive if surprised. Professionals There are two types of Pros: Snipers and Locusts A sniper is someone who is there for something specific. Now unlike the suave art thief you see who is commissioned to steal a priceless piece by a jealous rival collector, pros are often part of a ring. Often these rings are nationwide, so items stolen in one state are shipped and sold in others. Such criminals often have informants in insurance agencies so

they know the value of insured items and the nature of security systems protecting them. These people are not your casual burglars. They do not need to break anything to gain entrance and since they are only after one thing, it might be a week before you discover the theft. The other type of professional is what we call Locusts. Like their insectoid brethren these kinds will strip the landscape bare. Like the snipers, they tend to operate as part of a large ring and use informants. But their informants are often in business that you normally notify when you are going to be gone. Then in the middle of your vacation a moving truck will pull up, men in moving suits will get out -- complete with paperwork mind you --and strip your house clean. These kinds of professionals are extremely rare. PREVENTION OF AUTOMOBILE THEFT Combat Auto Theft (CAT): The CAT Program is a volunteer decal program designed to reduce car thefts in residential areas. Under this program, the automobile owner signs a consent form certifying that the vehicle is not operated between 1 a.m. and 5 a.m. Special decals are then affixed to the interior of the rear side windows to show that the vehicle is registered in the program, and to alert police officers that the car is not normally in use by its owner between the hours indicated. Upon seeing such a vehicle being operated during those early morning hours, a police officer may reasonably suspect that the car is being used without the owner's permission and may legally stop and question the driver. If the vehicle is driven during stated hours, the owner should realize the vehicle may be stopped and the driver questioned. If the vehicle is lent to another driver during the stated hours, it is the responsibility of the owner to advise the driver of participation in the C.A.T. program. In order to withdraw from participation in this program, the decals must be fully removed from the vehicle and notification made to the precinct for removal of the filed registration form. Prior to the sale or transfer of ownership of the participating vehicle, the decals must be removed and notification made to the precinct for removal of the field registration form. Lojack: For some $600, the LoJack system can be added as an option to newly purchased cars. It is a small, electronic device hidden in the car from thieves and the car's owner. The device is activated and begins emitting a silent signal when the car is reported stolen to police. A patrol car equipped with the LoJack detection unit within one-half to five miles of the stolen vehicle, depending on terrain, will pick up the signal. The LoJack detection unit inside the patrol car will beep and display a number, which can be radioed to dispatch to find the make, model and information on the stolen car. A directional finder guides the patrol car in the direction of the stolen vehicle's location. Presently, police agencies are rapidly installing LoJack units into helicopters and airplanes to complement vehicle patrols and expand the ability to quickly track stolen vehicles and commercial equipment. Vehicle Identification Number (VIN): All vehicles carry a federally-assigned number known as a Vehicle Identification Number (VIN). Making sure those numbers are marked permanently on a vehicle's windows steers thieves away. Why? Well, for one thing, disposing of a vehicle whose windows have been VIN etched takes time, trouble and money, all in short supply for thieves. That's because the windows of stolen VIN

Etched vehicles must be stripped and replaced before a thief can get rid of the car, a costly and time-consuming process. And VIN Etching obliterates any potential profit professional thieves might have gleaned from the lucrative practice of selling windows and windshields for parts via chop shops. Vin Etching is simple, fast, safe, relatively inexpensive and won't mar the look of the vehicle. Numbers are etched into the glass with a chemical solution. And those numbers will be there for good. The Club: The CLUB is a device which helps deter auto theft. Some departments conduct several CLUB giveaways in the city during special events. CLUBS are provided to the owners of vehicles that are on the top ten list of stolen vehicles in the community, Patrol Officers also carry the CLUB in their units and give them out to owners of the vehicles that appear on the annual top ten list of the most commonly stolen vehicles within the city. PASS-key: Many cars manufactured by GM come with a security feature called the PASS-Key theft deterrent system. One can tell if a car has this feature by looking at the ignition key -- the key's shaft has a small black module embedded in it with contacts on either side of the key. What is embedded in the key is one precision resistor. When a person inserts the key in the ignition, the resistor becomes part of a simple circuit involving three other resistors. If the key does not have a resistor or if the resistor has the wrong value, the circuit disables part of the car's electrical system to prevent the car from starting. Types of vandalism Wanton -destructive acts that have no monetary gain or purpose in mind. They are senseless acts of vandalism. These acts are done "just for the hell or fun of it." This kind of vandalism is committed by juveniles who often regard their vandalism as an extension of play activity. In some states the evening before Halloween is called "devil night" when juveniles throw eggs at people's windows. Offenders often rationalized that this type of vandalism is not a crime. Predatory -involves destruction of property for monetary gain, such as the "trashing" of vending machines in order to gain their contents. One variation of predatory vandalism is "bibliotheft" and destruction, in which students intentionally steal and destroy reference material. Rather than take notes or make copies of materials, students tear out the needed information, thus raising the cost of library materials and denying others of the opportunity to use such reference. Vindictive -is undertaken as an expression of hatred, or revenge. Many hate crime groups engage in vindictive vandalism. Examples include the Ku Klux Klan attack on black churches; ProLife activists' attacks on abortion clinics. The Differing Types of Shoplifters

Shulmann divides shoplifters into distinct groups, each with certain identifiable characteristics and expected responses if they are caught. Addictive-Compulsive Shoplifters This Group Emotionally Has A Lot Of Repressed Anger And Often Exhibits Signs Of Other Compulsive Addictions, Such As Overeating, Shopping, Drug Use, Or Gambling. These People Often Have The Traits Of “Caretakers”. These People Often Give To Others And Don’t Take Care Of Themselves. Typically They Will Steal Items That Are Often Inexpensive, And Then Give Them To Others As Gifts. If Caught, They Will Show Guilt, Shame, Or Remorse. Often They Will Breakdown And Cry When Caught And Confronted. Professional - Those Who Steal For Profit Or Lifestyle Professionals will try to steal high-end, expensive items, often stealing multiple items at one time. Many carry tools and utensils on them to assist with the theft. Most likely, this group will resist arrest if confronted and will attempt to flee the store. If caught and detained, they will remain cool and calm, and will not show remorse or emotion. The Impoverished – Those Who Steal Out Of Economic Need Typically they will steal necessities like food, diapers, toiletries, or children’s clothing. Often their manner of dress and hygiene may be poor. If caught, they will usually show remorse, but state their frustration with their lack of money, and may voice hostility against a “System” that keeps them impoverished. Drug Addicts – Those Who Steal To Pay For A Drug Habit Like Professionals, they prefer stealing expensive, high-end items, usually multiple items at a time. Their appearance often shows signs of substance abuse, and they often carry drugs or drug paraphernalia on themselves. They are usually less careful than the Professional, but will likely resist arrest and attempt to flee the store if confronted. Kleptomaniacs Are Those Who Steal For No Reason Kleptomaniacs are impulsive and often careless. They will often take items they don’t need and can’t use, like stealing shoes that don’t fit. If caught, many will admit they are kleptomaniacs, and do not feel much guilt or shame. They will often use common excuses like, “I don’t remember taking it”, or “I don’t know why I took it because I don’t even need it.” Scams Bank Examiner Schemes These criminals represent themselves as police officers or bank officials investigating a dishonest bank employee. The victim is asked to supply a large sum of cash to help catch the person, who they never see again. The victim will also be asked to refrain from calling bank or law enforcement personnel in order to maintain the integrity of the "investigation."

Pigeon Drop This scam is usually committed in a parking lot or other public location. A well dressed suspect will usually approach the intended victim, excitedly explain that he/she found a large amount of cash, and draw the victim into the scam by promising to split the cash. The suspect will request the victim to provide $2,000.00 or more to place into a bag as "good faith money". The suspect and victim's money will go into the same bag, and then the suspect will switch the bag with a bag full of paper scraps. By the time the victim realizes what happened, the suspect and money are long gone Equity Skimming and Real Estate Schemes These criminals target homeowners who are behind on payments and need to sell their homes quickly to avoid foreclosure. The "skimmer" promises to take over the payments, but once the deed to the home is signed over, the "skimmer" usually rents out the home, and never assumes the loan nor makes any payments. The Pyramid Scheme Someone offers you a chance to invest in a up-and-coming company with a guaranteed high return. The idea is that you invest and ask others to do the same. You get a percentage share from each investor you recruit. They are supposed to recruit others, and so on. When the pyramid collapses (either the pool of new investors dries up or the swindler is caught), everyone loses, except the person at the top. Home Improvement Schemes – These crimes usually occur in the spring, but may occur anytime. Crews of migrant roofers, painters, and pavers victimize older adults by performing "repair" work quickly, poorly, and at a much higher cost than the original estimate. Transient criminal groups often commit these crimes. Med ical Fraud By Physicians Improper Billing and Medicaid Fraud  The fee-for-service reimbursement of Medicaid provides the essential basis for physicians to increase their income illegally with little risk of apprehension. When they treat Medicaid patients, they are reimbursed with set fees for medical procedures.  This process prompts them to engage in several forms of improper billing. One common method exaggerates the services rendered to patients. For example, providers may give a patient a limited exam but put in a Medicaid claim for a full physical exam, or they may pretend they gave a patient various blood, heart, and other tests that were not given. In all example provided by the Senate Special Committee report, a Maryland physician stitched up a cut in a young boy's chin but billed Medicaid for a throat culture, a nasal culture, and three hearing tests that were not needed and never performed.  Another method involves billing the government for fictitious patients or for patients who were dead at the time they were supposedly treated. Physicians such as psychiatrists who charge by the hour may submit bills listing more time than they actually spent with the patient. Some psychiatrists have even submitted

Medicaid bills totaling more than twenty-four hours in a single day (Gels et al., 1985).  Another fraudulent practice involves Medicaid coupons. Although California and other states give Medicaid-eligible people coupons to give to health-care providers some providers obtain these coupons illegally. Other practices include pinponging (sending patients to other doctors for unnecessary visits), family ganging (examining all members of a family when only one is sick; and churning (asking patients to come in for unnecessary office visits Unnecessary Surgeries Another common medical practice is unnecessary surgery. What is considered "unnecessary," of course, is often a matter of interpretation. Physicians and patients alike naturally want to err on the side of caution and often decide on surgery as the safest course of action to treat a disease or injury, even though the surgery itself may pose some risks. Such prudence notwithstanding, several investigations have determined that a surprising amount of surgery exceeds any reasonable exercise of caution and is thus clearly unnecessary. For example, an estimated 350,000 unnecessary Caesarean sections are performed on pregnant women each year, amounting to about half of all Caesareans. Studies also find that about 27 percent of hysterectomies, 16 percent of tonsillectomies, 11 percent of heart bypass operations, and 14 percent of laminectomies, the most common type of back surgery, are unnecessary In all, there are probably 2 million to 4 million unnecessary surgical operations each year that cost $16 billion to $20 billion and cause 12,000 to 16,000 deaths from medical complications. Self-referral and Conflict of Interest Several studies find that physicians are more likely to refer patients for tests and other procedures when they have a financial interest in the laboratory or other facility to which the patients are referred. One study found that physician-owned labs in Florida performed twice as many tests per patient as independent labs. In another kind of self- referral, physicians who own expensive equipment are more likely to order expensive tests using that equipment. One study found that physicians with diagnostic imaging equipment in their offices were four times more likely to order imaging exams than doctors who had no such equipment. Other evidence indicates that physicians who own laboratories prescribe almost one and a half times as many tests far Medicare patients as physicians with no such financial stake. Although self-referral may not satisfy the legal requirements of fraud, at a minimum it falls into a gray area of medical and business ethics. Corporate Non-environmental Crimes Non Environmental Price Fixing The general rule provides that a vendor may not in combination with another vendor agree to set a certain price thereby creating a fixed price within a certain market. Where competitors agree to sell their goods or services at a specified price, minimum price or maximum price and they receive profits from such an agreement, they are in violation of price fixing. Additionally, setting a price to be charged only within a certain area in order

to get rid of competition or to create a monopoly is generally illegal under most state laws. False advertising It is referred to as either misleading deceptive, or questionable advertising. Companies use false advertising to entice consumers to buy products or services they offer. This also involves exaggerated claims for a product or service. Here are some examples: “Coke is it;” “Wheaties, Breakfast of Champions;” Manipulation of prices One example is insider trading which uses confidential information to purchase or sell large amounts of stock. Another is stock manipulation which is a conspiracy among brokers and traders to artificially raise the price of a stock of customers, and therefore the profit and commissions to the company, by placing large orders for a stock to create a false demand and then selling the stock at much higher price. Misappropriation and misuse of money Corporation use money, service or facilities of investors or customers for an unstated purpose that benefits the company or its executives to the exclusion of the customers. The collapse of the Savings and Loan banks during in the 1980s is an example. Environmental Crimes Air Pollution Air pollution is a major source of health problems such as asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema, cancer, and cirrhosis of the liver. These problems are especially acute for those who work in or live near industrial plants. The pollutants that are emitted in the air have extremely serious consequences for the environment; the greenhouse effect and the loss of the ozone layer. The two major sources of air pollution are emissions from automobiles and from industrial plants which use coal and wood for fuel. Although manufacturers have reduced their releases of toxic chemicals into the air by 43%, they still continue to pollute the air. Over 40% of residents in U.S. live in areas exceeding acceptable levels of one or more pollutants. By 1990, industrial plants and factories were releasing 2.8 billion pounds of poisonous chemicals annually. In 1989, the Environmental Protection Agency cited 205 industrial plants as posing the greatest risk to human health. Water Pollution This is of the major forms of pollution by industries. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that 40% of the rivers and lakes in United States are polluted. Industries pour into rivers, lakes and oceans a vast array of contaminants such as lead, asbestos, detergents, solvents, acid, and ammonia. Farmers dispose of pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, and animal waste into streams and lakes. The Mississippi River provides an example of the seriousness of water pollution. Greenpeace found that in 1988, industries and municipalities discharged billions of pounds of heavy metal and toxic chemicals into the Mississippi River. These pollutants can cause cancer, destroy the plant and aquatic life.

Solid Waste Pollution Production companies generate billions of waste every year. Most of this waste is biodegradable and can be preserved in landfills for hundreds of years. Some companies either fail to store their waste in landfills or use landfills that leak into drinking water. Some companies have also been dumping their solid wastes in oceans, and this has resulted in polluted beaches and contaminated fishes and the destruction of human, animal, and plant life. The incineration of and recycling of garbage are preferable, but only 10% of businesses are incinerated and another 10% are recycled their wastes. Chemical Pollution Toxic chemicals are found in fertilizers, pesticides, plastic, clothing, and insulation. The manufacture of these products require safes disposal of toxic chemicals. However, corporations often chose the cheapest means of disposal, which is to release the waste products in the air and waterways instead of dump sites. In addition, over 30,000 dump sites pose severe hazards and need to be cleaned up. One of the most widely known case of toxic waste is Love Canal in Niagara Falls, New York. In the 1970s, residents of Niagara Falls learned that their children were attending a school built on top of what was formerly a toxic landfill. A large number of the children became ill and developed cancer and other diseases,, Nuclear Pollution Nuclear or radioactive wastes are the most dangerous of toxic wastes. Radioactive waste comes primarily from manufacturers of nuclear weapons and nuclear power plants and small amounts are by-products of certain medical procedures. Weapons-manufacturing plants in Washington, South Carolina, and Colorado store huge amounts of radioactive waste and chemicals in underground tanks. But some of these companies use tanks that leak and they contaminate groundwater and thousands of cubic feet of soil. In addition, the nuclear industry has had a history of spreading radioactive and chemical wastes over the Open ground, into rivers, and dumping it wherever it is most convenient and least expensive. In the 1980s, many nuclear plants were shut down. One reason why nuclear wastes is so hazardous is the length of time the wastes can remain deadly. For example, uranium waste from nuclear power plants will remain dangerously radioactive for the next 10,000 years, and plutonium for the next 240,00 years. The major nuclear accident in the U.S, occurred with the near-meltdown In Pennsylvania at Three Mile Island in

CYBERCRIMINALS Types of Cybercriminals Computer Network Break-Ins Using software tools installed on a computer in a remote location, hackers can break into computer systems to steal data, plant viruses or trojan horses, or work mischief of a less serious sort by changing user names or passwords. Network intrusions have been made illegal by the U.S. federal government, but detection and enforcement are difficult. Software Piracy.

According to estimates by the U.S. Software and Information Industry Association; as much as $7.5 billion of American software may be illegally copied and distributed annually worldwide. These copies work as well as the originals, and sell for significantly less money. Piracy is relatively easy, and only the largest rings of distributors are usually caught. Moreover, software pirates know that they are unlikely to serve hard jail time when prisons are overcrowded with people convicted of more serious crimes Child Pornography This is one crime that is clearly illegal, both on and off the Internet. Crackdowns may catch some offenders, but there are still ways to acquire images of children in varying stages of dress and performing a variety of sexual acts. Legally speaking, people who use or provide access to child porn face the same charges whether the images are digital or on a piece of photographic paper. Trials of network users arrested in a recent FBI bust may challenge the validity of those laws as they apply to online services. Mail Bombings Software can be written that will instruct a computer to do almost anything, and terrorism has hit the Internet in the form of mail bombings. By instructing a computer to repeatedly send electronic mail (email) to a specified person's email address, the cybercriminal can overwhelm the recipient's personal account and potentially shut down entire systems. This mayor may not be illegal, but it is certainly disruptive. Mail bombers flood people's home computer with jibberish or reroute their phone. Password Sniffers Password sniffers are programs that monitor and record the name and password of network users as they log in, jeopardizing security at a site. Whoever installs the sniffer can then impersonate an authorized user and log in to access restricted documents. Laws are not yet set up to adequately prosecute a person for impersonating another person on- line, but laws designed to prevent unauthorized access to information may be effective in apprehending hackers using sniffer programs. The Wall Street Journal suggests in recent reports that hackers may have sniffed out passwords used by members of America Online, a service with more than 3.5 million subscribers. Spoofing Spoofing is the act of disguising one computer to electronically "look" like another computer in order to gain access to a system that would normally be restricted. Legally, this can be handled in the same manner as password sniffers, but the law will have to change if spoofing is going to be addressed with more than a quick-fix solution. Spoofing was used to access valuable documents stored on a computer belonging to security expert Tsutomu Shimomura. Policing Cybercrimes Anonymity  Cybercriminal can “mask” their identity on the internet by using Internet Protocol (IP) address and anonymous remailers mail servers that purposefully strip identifying information and transport headers from electronic mail. Even if one

country bans remailers, the service may be available in other countries. They can also create pseudo-anonymity by adopting an on-line identity (pseudonym), which often bears little or no resemblance to their true identity. Cybercriminal can also impersonate other users by faking the header of an e-mail message to make it appear as if it originates form the victim’s account. The inability to identify the source of the harassment or threats hinders police investigation of cybercrimes. Issue of Privacy  Even if the cybercriminal is identified, there is still the issue of the cybercriminal’s privacy. In United States, for example, the Cable Communications Policy Act (CCPA) of 1984 prohibits disclosure of cable subscriber records to law enforcement agencies unless the agency has a court order and has provided advance notice to the subscriber. Under the CCPA, a law enforcement agency investigating a cybercriminal who uses a cable company for Internet access would have to provide the individual notice that the agency has requested his/her subscriber records. This law was passed before the use of the Internet was so prevalent, and long before cable companies became ISPs. The purpose of the law was to prevent police from abusing their power by checking on the viewing habits of cable subscribers without the knowledge of the persons being investigated. The law was designed to protect individual’s privacy, but now that cable companies are ISPs, it can hinder police investigation of cybercriminal. Jurisdiction and statutory authority The Internet can be seen as multi-jurisdictional because internet users have access to the internet anywhere in the world. Because cyberjurisdiction is global, law enforcement officers face the issue of jurisdictional limitations when investigating cybercrimes is that of jurisdiction. Determining the jurisdiction of an electronic criminal case presents difficulties for law enforcement officers when the criminal and the victim live in different states or different countries. While citizens of same country or state who are victims of a cybercriminal in that state or country may have some legal recourse, the same citizens who are victims of a cybercriminal living elsewhere may not have any recourse. So that although the internet may be borderless for the cybercriminal, law enforcement officers are bounded by geographical boundaries. This makes investigating and arresting a cybercriminal outside the jurisdiction extremely difficult.