Public Speaking: Ethos, Pathos, Logos and Effective Communication - Prof. Amanda Firestone, Study notes of Communication and Presentation Skills

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Chapter 1

Ethos- appeal based on the character of the speaker, ethics, credibility, reputation

Pathos- appeal based on emotion

Logos- appeal based on logic or reason, internal consistency of the message

Skyhook principle- finding a moral principle that one shares with one’s audience

Walter Ong:

 Speech tends to be integrative

 Speech tends to be redundant

 Speech tends to be traditionalist

 Speech tends to be concrete

 Speech is agonistically toned

 Speech is participatory

 Speech is situational

Chapter 2

Purposes for public speaking:

 To inform

 To persuade

 To entertain

Specific purpose- combines the general purpose with the topic

Ways to combat speech anxiety:

 Focus on your ideas

 Look at your listeners

 Remember to breathe

 Relax your body

 Speak in public as often as you can

Chapter 3

Different kinds of listening:

 Appreciative listening

 Discriminative listening

 Empathic/therapeutic listening

 Listening for comprehension

 Critical listening

RRA technique for active listening:

1. Review- mentally summarize the information.
2. Relate- apply the information to what you know.
3. Anticipate- use this to focus on the content of the message.

Badly placed or misused information- percentages, rather than concrete numbers; characteristics of a sample; hasty

generalizations

Chapter 4

Culture- a group’s system of meanings attached to persons, places, things, ideas, and rituals

Subculture- smaller groups that define their lifestyles at least in part by how they are different from the dominant

culture

Co-cultures- cultures that coexist in society as relatively complete ways of life (i.e. womanhood vs. manhood)

Multiculturalism- the recognition that a country possesses not a unified culture, but one with several subcultures and

powerful co-cultures that interpenetrate yet are separate from one another

Value orientation- habitual ways of thinking about positive and negative rounds for human thought and action

Rhetorical framework- conceptual borders that orient information in a particular way

Types of frameworks:

 Metaphorical

 Narrative

 Valuative

Chapter 5

Demographics:

 Age

 Education

 Gender

 Group membership

 Cultural and ethnic background

Psychological profiling- identification of what listeners already think and feel

Handling a hostile audience:

 Establish good will

 Start with areas of agreement

 Offer principles of judgment

 Develop positive credibility

 Use experts and supporting material to which your audience will respond

 Disarm your listeners with humor

 Use a multisided presentation

Belief- convictions about what is true or false

Value- the basic concepts organizing one’s orientation to life

Attitude- tendencies to respond positively or negatively to people, objects, or ideas

Chapter 6

Primary sourcing- eyewitness/firsthand accounts

Secondary sourcing- accounts based on other sources of information

Tertiary sourcing- information that is a distillation and collection of primary and secondary sources

Use of statistics:

 Translate difficult-to-comprehend numbers into more understandable terms

 Don’t be afraid to round off complicated numbers

 Use visual materials to clarify statistics whenever possible

 Use statistics fairly

Good sources:

 General reference works

 Newspapers

 Magazines and journals

 Yearbooks and encyclopedias

 Government publications

 Biographies

 Collections

 Interviews

Plagiarism- the unacknowledged inclusion of someone else’s words, ideas, or data as one’s own

Chapter 7

Speech-centered organizational patterns:

 Spatial- organizing ideas in reference to their location or direction from each other

 Chronological- ideas ordered in a time sequence

 Causal- shows a relationship between causes and effects

 Topical- listing aspects of persons, places, things, or processes

Audience-centered organizational patterns:

 Familiarity-acceptance order- begins with what listeners know or believe and moves on to new or challenging ideas

 Inquiry order- provides a step-by-step explanation of how one acquired information or reached a conclusion

 Question-answer order- raises and answers listeners’ questions

 Problem-solution order- advocating changes in action or thought

 Elimination order- first surveys all available solutions and courses of action, then systematically eliminates all but

one possibility

Chapter 8

Good ways to start:

 Refer to the subject or occasion

 Use a personal reference or greeting

 Ask a question

 Make a startling statement

 Use a quotation

 Tell a humorous story

 Use an illustration

Good ways to end:

 Issue a challenge

 Summarize the major points or ideas

 Use a quotation

 Use an illustration

 Supply an additional inducement to belief or action

 State a personal intention

Chapter 9

Oral style- informal, similar to conversation

Keys in speech:

 Accuracy

 Simplicity

 Restatement

Strategic use of language:

 Definitions

 Dictionary definition

 Stipulative definition

 Negative definition

 Etymological definition

 Exemplar definition

 Contextual definition

 Analogical definition

 Imagery:

 Visual

 Auditory

 Gustatory

 Olfactory

 Tactile

 Kinesthetic

 Organic

Chapter 10

Types of speeches:

 Impromptu

 Scripted

 Extemporaneous

 Memorized

What makes a good speech:

 Adjust your volume

 Control your rate

 Enunciate clearly

 Meet standards of pronunciation

 Variety in rate and pitch

 Use vocal emphasis and helpful pauses

Use of body language:

 Proxemics

 Movement and stance

 Facial expressions

 Gestures

 Conventional

 Descriptive

 Indicators

Establishing context:

 Signal your relationship with your audience through proxemics

 Adapt the physical setting to your communicative needs

 Adapt your gestures and movements to the size of the audience

 Establish eye contact with your audience, looking specific individuals in the eye

 Use your body to communicate your feelings

 Regulate the pace of your presentation with bodily movement

 Use your full repertoire of gestures

Chapter 11

Why we use visual aids:

 To aid comprehension and memory

 To persuade

Rules for visual aids:

 Use to reinforce the spoken message

 Have a presentation plan

 Keep it simple

 Design visuals for maximum effectiveness

 Use, but don’t abuse, technology to create visuals

Chapter 12

Types of informative speeches:

 Explanations or lectures

 Demonstrations

 Oral reports

Essential qualities in informative speeches:

 Clarity

 Association of new ideas with familiar ones

 Clustering ideas

 Constructing relevant visualizations

 Motivating your audience

Tips for developing informative speeches:

 Create curiosity

 Adapt what your listeners already know

 Use repetition

 Involve your listeners

 Choose an appropriate organizational pattern

 Use multiple channels

 Coordinate verbal and visual material

 Adapt your rate

 Adjust for audience size

 Suggest additional resources

Chapter 13

Common motivational appeals:

 Affiliation cluster

 Companionship and

affiliation

 Conformity

 Deference/dependence

 Sympathy/generosity

 Loyalty

 Tradition

 Reverence/worship

 Sexual attraction

 Achievement cluster

 Acquisition/saving

 Success/display

 Prestige

 Pride

 Adventure/change

 Perseverance

 Creativity

 Curiosity

 Personal enjoyment

 Power cluster  Aggression

 Authority/dominance

 Defense

 Fear

 Autonomy/independence

Maslow’s Hierarchy

1. Psychological

a. Food

b. Drink

c. Sex

d. Sleep

2. Safety

a. Security

b. Stability

c. Protection

d. Structure

e. Orderliness

f. Law

g. Predictability

h. Freedom from fear and chaos

3. Belongingness and love

a. Love and affection from family

b. Friends

c. Acceptance and approval by social groups

4. Esteem

a. Self-esteem from

achievement

b. Competence

c. Mastery

d. Confidence

e. Reputation

f. Recognition

g. status

5. Self-actualization

a. Self-fulfillment

Monroe’s Motivational Sequence:

 Attention- gain audience attention

 Need- show the need, describe the problem

 Satisfaction- satisfy the need, present the solution

 Visualization- visualize the results

 Action- request action or approval

Chapter 14

Types of claims:

 Claim of fact

 Claim of value

 Claim of policy

Types of evidence:

 Rationally relevant evidence

 Motivationally relevant evidence

Forms of reasoning:

 Reasoning from examples

 Reasoning from generalizations

 Reasoning from sign

 Reasoning from parallel case

 Reasoning from cause

Detecting fallacies:

 Genetic fallacy

 Appeal to ignorance

 Bandwagon fallacy

 Sequential fallacy

 Begging the question

 Appeal to authority

 Name-calling

Tips for developing argumentative speeches:

 Place your strongest arguments first or last

 Vary your evidence

 Avoid personal attacks on opponents

 Know the potential arguments of your opponents

 Practice constructing logical arguments and detecting fallacious ones