Study Guide for Test 1 | Human Development I | HD 1004, Study notes of Human Development

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Human Development I HD 1004 Fall 2008 Study Guide for Test 1 Chapter 1 • Identify and define the three developmental domains. • Discuss the significance of the following developmental issues: o Maturation and Learning o Nature and Nurture o Continuous and Discontinuous o Early and Later Experiences o Individual Differences • Discuss the nature–nurture controversy and give examples of both biological/genetic and environmental influences, as well as of the interactions between these influences • Define continuity and discontinuity, giving an example of each. • Explain how twin studies are used to determine genetic and environmental influences. • Discuss the historical roots of the study of child development (e.g., original sin, tabula rasa, innate goodness) • Describe the contemporary applied directions of human development • Define the following key terms and concepts: -child development: changes in physical, social, emotional, and intellectual functioning over time, from conception through adolescence -cognitive development: development of mental processes used to process information, grow in awareness, solve problems, and gain knowledge -continuous development: view of development as smooth and gradual -developmental domains: the three main areas of development: physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development -dizygotic (DZ) twins: twins who develop from two separate eggs fertilized by two separate sperm cells; fraternal twins -heritability: an estimate of the degree to which variation of a characteristic in a population is influenced by genetic factors -learning: changes that occur as the result of observation, experience, instruction or practice -maturation: changes brought about largely through the unfolding of a person’s genetic code -monozygotic (MZ) twins: twins who share the same genetic code because they developed from one fertilized egg, which divided into two separate individuals; identical twins -nature versus nurture debate: controversy over the extent to which biological/genetic and environmental factors influence development -physical development: growth and change in a person’s body and bodily functions -social-emotional development: development of processes related to interactions with other people Chapter 2 • Describe the tenets of Ethological theories o Define imprinting o Explain attachment theory o Know the difference between a critical period and a sensitive period • Describe Psychoanalytic Theory o Know the relationship between the three parts of the personality (id, ego, superego) according to Freud o Explain psychosocial theory • Describe the major learning-based theories o Explain classical conditioning (Pavlov, Watson) o Explain operant conditioning (Skinner) o Explain social learning theory (Bandura) • Describe cognition-based theories o Explain Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory o Define organization and adaptation: o Explain Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory o Define scaffolding: -informal teaching methods that provide structure and support for children’s thinking o Define zone of proximal development: -Vygotsky’s term for the distance between what a child can do unaided and what a child can do through interaction with skilled helpers o Explain the information-processing perspective • Describe Contextual theories • Describe Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems model • Describe dynamic systems theory • Describe the eclectic approach • State the steps of the scientific method • Summarize various research methodologies, including case studies, clinical interviews, surveys, naturalistic studies, correlational studies, and experimental studies. • Summarize developmental research methodologies, including cross-sectional, longitudinal, and cohort-sequential designs, identifying strengths and weaknesses. • Define the following terms and concepts: -accommodation: changing a scheme to fit new information from the environment -assimilation: directly processing information that fits a scheme -attachment theory: explanation of development that focuses on the quality of the early emotional relationships developed between children and their caregivers -case study: method in which the researcher collects information about aspects of a person’s life -the fertilized ovum • Know how many chromosomes a zygote contains: -46 • Know the difference between dizygotic and monozygotic twins: -monozygotic twins (identical twins) share the same genetic code because they developed from one fertilized egg, which divides into 2 separate individuals. Dizygotic twins (fraternal twins) developed from two separate eggs fertilized by two separate sperm cells. • Know the difference between genotype and phenotype: -a person’s genotype (genetic code) influences their phenotype (outward expression of genotype). • Identify and describe chromosomal abnormalities, sex-linked abnormalities, and gene-linked abnormalities: -one example of x-linked genetic transmission concerns hemophilia (causes excessive bleeding due to failures in blood clotting). Disease frequently observed among members of European royalty. Recessive transmission is different on the sex chromosomes than it is on the autosomes. On autosomes 2 recessive copies of gene must be present for characteristic to be expressed. Not true on sex chromosomes. • Discuss the prevention of hereditary disorders: - • Describe heredity-environment correlations (passive, evocative, active): -parents often provide a rearing environment that matches child’s genotype, creating a passive G-E correlation. Because parent’s behavior is influenced by genetic inheritance, this inheritance influence kind of environment where child is raised. -children’s genotypes draw responses from others, giving rise to evocative G-E correlation. child who actively engages with others by smiling, laughing, lookin, and being pleasant is more likely to be responded to and treated positively by teachers and others. -active G-E correlation is created when people seek out environments compatible with their genotype. Children who are relatively inactive may seek others who are quiet and studious while avoiding sports. Behavior is called niche building because it involves selecting the aspects of the environment that are most comfortable and learning from exposure to those environments. • Define the following terms and concepts: -active G-E correlation: situation in which the child seeks out environments compatible with his or her genotype -alleles: different forms of each gene -amniocentesis: a procedure used to determine whether genetic defects are present, in which genetic defects are present, in which amniotic fluid is collected and fetal cells are genetically tested -autosomes: the first 22 pairs of chromosomes, which account for most of the body’s cells -carriers: people who are heterozygous for a recessive disorder -chorionic villus sampling (CVS): a procedure used to assess genetic material in fetal cells, in which cells are removed from the projections on the chorionic membrane -chromosomes: the structures on which genes reside -DNA: a double helix consisting of 2 backbones, like a twisted ladder whose rungs are made up of chemical combinations, the basis of chromosomes -dominant gene: a gene whose code is expressed when only one copy of the gene is present -evocative G-E correlation: situation in which the child’s genotype draws responses from others -fragile X syndrome: a condition passed on by sex linked transmission and characterized by protruding ears, prominent jaw, unusual speech, poor eye contact, and mild to moderate retardation -gametes: the sex cells (ova and sperm) -gene-environment interactions: genetic sensitivity to particular environmental factors -genes: the portion of DNA that encodes specific genetic information -genome: a person’s complete set of DNA -genotype: a person’s genetic code -heterozygous: describing inheritance of a trait to which each parent has contributed a different copy of the gene -homozygous: describing inheritance of a trait to which both parents contributed identical copies of the gene -karyotype: a photograph of chromosomes, used by geneticists to align each chromosome with the other member of its pair -meiosis: the process of cell replication undergone by ova and sperm; involves one duplication and one division of chromosomes, resulting in cells with a full set of genetic material, which undergo another division so that the final four cells each contain half the complement of chromosomes -mitosis: a type of cell division that gives rise to two daughter cells, each with identical chromosomes and genotypes; involves one duplication of chromosomes and one cell division -ovum: a human egg -passive G-E correlation: situation in which parents provide a rearing environment that matches the child’s own genotype -phenotype: the outward expression of the genotype -polygenic transmission: combined effect of multiple genes -recessive genes: a gene whose code is not expressed in the presence of a dominant gene -regulator genes: genes that control the expression of other genes -sex chromosomes: the 23rd pair of chromosomes, which accounts for a person’s sex -spermatogenesis: the process by which sperm develop -spermatozoa: mature spermatids that are fully functional and capable of fertilizing a human ovum -ultrasound: a procedure used to identify some developmental problems, in which video images of the fetus and the fetus’s internal organs are produced from the echoes of sound waves Chapter 4 • Summarize the stages of prenatal development (Germinal Stage, Embryonic Stage, Fetal Stage) and describe the timeline: -Germinal Stage: begins at conception and lasts till the fertilized egg implants in the uterine wall (2 weeks). Cell division and differentiation (main qualities) -Embryonic Stage: beings at implantation and lasts about 8 weeks. Child is referred to as embryo. Major organs and body parts develop daily. Most critical time in prenatal development, environmental damage most likely to occur. -Fetal Stage: begins at about 8 weeks lasts until birth. Child is referred to as fetus. Elaboration of existing organs and structures occurs and brain develops rapidly. • Define the age of viability: -it is the point at which postnatal survival is likely. About 7 months survival is possible with intensive care because fetus’s lungs and nervous system are developed enough to support breathing. • Identify various teratogens and their common effects on the developing baby: -alcohol, tobacco, some include diseases such as smallpox, HIV, environmental agents such as X-rays and pesticides, and drugs like cocaine and alcohol. Common effects include spontaneous abortion, damage to the nervous system and brain (affecting later behavior or intelligence). Some effects are direct (the fetus is exposed to alcohol when mother drinks) and indirect (fetus receives less oxygen while mother is smoking). • Describe maternal conditions that could negatively or positively affect the unborn child: -mother’s physical, psychological, and social characteristics can affect fetus by influencing her health or altering chemistry of her blood. Mothers over 35 increased risk for having a child with down syndrome. Also risk developing high blood pressure, gestational diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Stress can change mother’s blood chemistry. Mothers who are stressed or emotionally upset produce hormones that cross placental barrier and affect the fetus. Extreme and prolonged conditions of stress increase the risk of miscarriage, difficult labor, and delivery, prematurity. Parity (number/spacing of children a woman bears) affects development. Women’s endocrine system takes 4 years to return to pregnancy condition. Infants born before may be at a disadvantage, pregnancy within 3 months of delivery is classified as a high risk pregnancy. Infants conceived after period of recuperation have better prenatal environment than firstborns. Blood circulation is richer after a first pregnancy and later born children suffer fewer birth defects and complications. Labor and delivery are quicker and less demanding for later born children. Good nutrition essential. Proper nutrition and weight gain increase likelihood of giving birth to healthy baby. Regular exercise gives pregnant women more energy, builds bones and muscles, improves health. May improve women’s ability to cope with childbirth pain. Prenatal care has been associated with lower rates of birth complications. Supporting and nurturing environment protects a pregnant women and unborn child by creating favorable conditions. Helps minimize the negative effects of stress, having social support helps a women deal with physical demands of complications that arise during pregnancy. • Describe natural and prepared childbirth: - • Detail the birth process, including the three stages of labor and pain reduction techniques: -Stage 1: Dilation of the Cervix- true contractions of labor mark beginning of first stage. Early contractions last about 30 to 60 seconds and occur at 5 to 20 minute intervals. By end of labor interval is about 1 to 3 minutes and duration and intensity of contractions -Behavioral Assessment Scale: a measure commonly used to assess a newborn’s responses to the environment -neonate: an infant who is in the first one to 2 months of life -placenta: the structure through which nutrients and waste products are exchanged between the mother and the developing embryo -placental barrier: a line of protection for the unborn child, created by blood vessel walls that separate the maternal and fetal circulatory systems -postpartum depression: intense feelings of sadness, anxiety, or despair experienced by a mother after the birth of a child -premature: term describing infants born prior to 37 weeks’ gestation -preterm: same as premature -teratogens: agents that cross the placental barrier and cause or increase the incidence of physical malformations and behavioral and cognitive deficits -umbilical cord: the lifeline of the embryo, consisting of 2 arteries and one vein -zygote: the fertilized ovum Chapter 5 • Outline the physical development of infants and toddlers: -during first 2 years growth in height, weight, dramatic changes in motor skills. (most during first 2 years than any other age) heads are much larger relative to bodies • Define cephalocaudal and proximodistal development -cephalocaudal development: the principle that growth occurs from the head downward. -proximodistal development: the principle that body parts closer to the central axis of the body develop first, while those farther away from the center of the body develop later. • Describe the major milestones of motor development in infants and toddlers. -major developments in motor activity occur during first few year or two as infants acquire the abilities to sit, crawl, stand, and walk. Before attain abilities, must gain control over their muscles and learn to cope with the forces of gravity. Infants reflexes become inhibited as brain develops and they gain voluntary control over movements. • Discuss changes in body proportion: -a newborn’s head is about one quarter of his or her body size, where an adult’s head makes up about 12% of body size. Infants have a large forehead, small flat nose, and large eyes. They have protruding stomach, short bowed legs, and relatively high amounts of fat. • State how the infant brain changes and identify factors related to these changes. o Describe the function and growth of the cerebral cortex: -largest part of brain. Controls higher thought processes such as problem solving, consciousness, and language. Last part to finish growing. More susceptible to environmental influences. Divided into two halves, called hemispheres, each has speciazlied areas for certain functions. Left is for language processing right is for recognizaing spatial relationships. Left develops rapidaly around age 2 right develops later. Hemispheres not fully connected. o Describe the function of neurons (axons, dendrites, synapses): -neurons make up the communication system of the brain. These cells migrate outward to specific areas of brain to form its structure. Formation of neurons and movement/migration to form parts of brain are “progressive” because provide increasing organization and structure. Dendrites receive messages and axons send these messages. Neurons spin out axons and dendrites that allow for transmission on info among them. A chemical messenger transmits info from one neuron to the next through small gapes or spaces called synapses. o Describe myelinization and pruning: -myelination occurs in the early years of brain development, helps speed information flow, it provides neurons with a sheath of smooth layers of fatty proteins (myelin) these proteins warp themselves around axons. Electrical impulses travel about three times faster along myelinated pathways, begins during prenatal development for parts of spinal cord. In brain, occurs first in the parts that control reflexes and later in parts that control voluntary movements. -pruning is the process whereby some little used neural connections are eliminated, then takes place to decrease the number of cells and connections. Cells and connections are lost but those maintained are reorganized and strengthened and brain becomes increasingly organized. Influenced by both genetic and environmental factors, connections lost during pruning are those not reinforced by child’s environment. • Describe the various states of infant arousal: -6 major categories: fussing/crying, nonalert waking, alert waking, drowsiness/sleep- wake transition, active sleep, and quiet sleep. Sates of arousal influence interactions with others and environment. In quiet alert state infants learn better and are tuned in to the environment. Fussing/crying: low-intensity fussing or higher-intensity crying. Nonalert wake: eyes open but unfocused, body movements, isolated fussing. Alert awake: attentive, looking around, eyes open. Drowsiness/sleep-wake transition: little motor activity, eyes closing and opening. Active sleep: eyes closed, uneven breathing, rapid eye movements, smiling, grimacing. Quiet sleep: eyes closed, regular and slow respiration, limited activity. • Describe the influences on early physical growth: -genetic factors play major role (esp for height and body type and less for weight). Conditions in which child is raised influence growth patterns. Those who don’t receive adequate nutrition during early years do not achieve optimal height. Changes in diet can alter trends. • Define failure to thrive, marasmus, and kwashiorkor -failure to thrive (FTT): a term used to describe infants and children who do not grow at the expected rates -maramus: a form of protein-energy malnutrition involving severe body wasting -kwashiorkor: a form of protein-energy malnutrition in which only protein is deficient. • Discuss breastfeeding versus bottlefeeding: -human milk provides all proteins needed for a baby in the first 6 months of life. Contains a balance of amino acids and minerals that differs from other nutritional sources. Contains more cholesterol than cow’s milk or formulas which is essential for promoting myelination within the brain. Has higher concentration of lactose which provides fuel needed by infants rapidly growing brain. Human and cow’s milk both low in iron, iron in human milk is absorbed better, reducing likelihood of iron deficiencies. Also more digestible. Breast fed infants are more resistant to infections. Cleanliness. Milk contains substances that fight off infections. Transfers mothers immunities to infants and stimulating infant’s immune system. Colostrums is produced a pre milk substance containing antibodies that protect baby from infections. Minimizes risk of obesity. • Discuss infant physical health concerns and accident prevention: -leading cause of death under 1 year of age are congenital anomalies, sudden infant death syndrome, and disorders related to low birth weight or premature birth. After learning to walk leading cause is physical injuries. Many problems can be prevented through vaccines and safety devices to prevent injuries. Another issue is exposure to environmental hazards, lead or radon gas. Those who live in impoverished environments are most at risk for health and safety problems: lack of health care and unsafe conditions. Careful about car safety, should be restrained in car seats attached to back seat. Make sure homes are childproof. • Describe the function of infant reflexes and list the various types: -some reflexes provide ways to interact with environment, some aid survival , some are protective like coughing, sneezing, blinking, and muscle withdrawal. Feeding reflexes like rooting or sucking. The Moro Reflex is a startle reaction to loud noises where infants fling their arms and draw tem in arch their backs and extend their legs. The Palmar Grasping Reflex has elicited by touching the inside of baby’s hand, causes fingers to curl around object. • Describe gross motor development and fine motor development: -gross motor control development moves from head to feat (cephalocaudal direction). Head, trunk, and arm control appears before able to coordinate their hands and fingers, showing the proximodistal trend of development. Infants can raise head before standing up. -fine motor skills allow children to manipulate and interact with objects. Reaching for a toy or using fingers and thumb to pick up something. Development has important impact on other domains of development (cognitive development). • Discuss infant sensory capacities o Touch and pain sensitivity: -fetus’s respond to light touch early in prenatal development. Nervous system that processes info about touch develop very early. Particularly sensitive on the face, hands, soles of feet, and abdomen. Sensitive to changes in temperature and respond to cooling temps by waking up and moving around. Full-term newborn may sweat when hot but preterm infant does not, cooling mechanism of sweating matures more slowly than do other responses to temp. newborns do experience pain. When circumcised or receive injections, infants become distressed. Hold their breath, cry, arms, legs, and torsos become rigid, faces show pain, and difficulty sleeping. Bodies respond to surgical procedures producing more stress hormones. o Smell: -newborns can distinguish between smells such as vinegar and alcohol. Turn away and make faces at strong/unpleasant smells. Turn towards pleasant ones. May be one of first and basic connections between neonates and caregivers. After 6 days will turn their head towards smell of mother’s milk rather then other mothers. o Taste: -newborns can distinguish between sweet, salty, bitter, and sour. Prefer sweet solutions and don’t like bitter or sour. Taste buds form early in prenatal development. Have wider distribution of taste buds than adults do, found on the tonsils and back of throat. Flavors from mother’s diet during pregnancy transmitted to amniotic fluid and swallowed by