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Introduction to Psychology: The Book “Psychology”

Focus Question and Answers ( 8 th edition)

Chapter 1

FQ. 2 : What was Descartes’ version of dualism? How did it help pave the way for a science of psychology? According to Descartes, common behaviour aimed towards survival, reproduction, communication, sustenance etc. and all reflexes were the acts of the body, and the soul could only be responsible for the only uncommon act between humans and animals: thinking. He argued that the soul was located in the pineal gland of the brain and somehow triggered physical movements and reactions through the immaterial concept of pure thought. This point of view attributed many of the actions and processes to the material human body that were previously attributed to the immaterial soul; bringing human behaviour and reflexes somewhat closer to the scientific realm. FQ. 3 : What reasons can you think of for why Descartes’ theory, despite its intuitive appeal, was unsuitable for a complete psychology? According to Descartes’ theory, the soul thought of a proper response to a sensory input and made the body respond accordingly by pulling threads, releasing liquids etc. The actions of the body were enabled for scientific study by having been attributed a scientific and physical explanation. However the prospect of a completely immaterial concept that is the soul, not bound to the laws of the nature, having physical effects on our body solely by thought did not bring the mind and mental processes into the scientific realm where it could be studied in greater detail. FQ. 4 : How did Hobbes’ materialism help lay the groundwork for a science of psychology? Thomas Hobbes’ theory has completely disregarded the concept of an immaterial soul and attributed every thought process and their physical reflections to the body. This way, every human action, along with the motives and mental processes, would be bound to the laws of nature and could be studied in a scientific manner. FQ. 5 : How did the nineteenth-century understanding of the nervous system inspire a theory of behaviour called reflexology? The prospect of bodily movement being completely independent of a soul brought the question of if the consciousness was also bound to the human body as well. If so, every single human action would simply be a nervous reaction to environmental stimuli – a reflex. By this definition, from the smallest to the most complex human behaviour would be the doing of our bodies, independent from a soul, as a response to whatever it comes across. FQ. 6 : How did the discoveries of localization of function in the brain help establish the idea that the mind can be studies scientifically?

It was now known all human behaviour and thought that had been attributed to the soul in the past was now considered the doing of our body. The brain was the centre of this chain of command, and it utilised different portions of itself to complete various tasks. So it was concluded that the brain – which was completely within the realm of science – basically “contained” the attributions of the old concept of soul now, and it could be studied to understand in greater detail the human behaviour. It was basically a conversion of the soul to our plane in a material vessel that it could be studied within. FQ. 7 : How would you explain the origin of complex ideas and thoughts according to British Empiricism? What role did the law of association by contiguity play in this philosophy? As for British empiricists, a child was born with their mind like a blank slate (tabula rasa) and all the ideas and thoughts they obtain were merely reflections of sensory experience within our minds. The small elemental ideas created and left there by these experiences came together to form greater and much more complex thoughts. When the mind encountered two ideas that occurred at the same time (simultaneously) or right after one another (contiguously) it had associated them. This connection ensured that when one of the ideas resurfaced, the other one was triggered too. This was called association by contiguity and was considered a fundamental machinery of the human mind. Association by contiguity helped explain how fragments of ideas created by sensory input could build up to complex ideas and thoughts. FQ. 8 : How would you describe the influence that empiricist philosophy has had on psychology? It has certainly laid foundations of a much better understanding of the learning and memory functions of the brain. It has made a solid proposal on how sensory feedback and its images in our brain could add up to a complete and complex concept – how we “learn” something; and how triggering one of these elements could resurface others – how we “remember” something. FQ. 9 : Why is the ability to learn dependent on inborn knowledge? In Kant’s nativist philosophy, what is the distinction between a priori and a posteriori knowledge? Kant and his nativist philosophy argued that for a child to be able to obtain, memorize, combine and utilize any idea or thought that occurs, the brain needs the prior furnishing of these abilities. The basic mechanisms of learning, storage and construction of new information was considered to have been acquired at birth, namely a priori knowledge. Every single piece of information that has been obtained after birth via sensory experience was considered a posteriori knowledge and was in need of a priori knowledge to “be known”. FQ. 10 : How did Darwin’s theory of natural selection offer a scientific foundation for explaining behaviour by describing its functions? How did it provide a basis for understanding the origin of a prior i knowledge? Darwin and his theory of natural selection argued that just as physical aspects that promote survival and reproduction are prone to being passed on rather than being eradicated; mental mechanisms and behaviour that help us survive and reproduce could also be passed on by natural selection, rendering certain behavioural tendencies a priori knowledge. This application of the theory to a priori knowledge has provided it with a solid foundation as to what the evolutionary reasons of the development of this type of knowledge could be.

FQ. 12 : How do neural, physiological, genetic, and evolutionary explanations differ from one another? How would you apply these explanations toward an understanding of jealousy? Neural explanation focuses on explaining the effects of the processes and structures of the neural system on human behaviour. Physiological explanation takes on a wider perspective and involves chemical and biological material as well, such as hormones and medicine while explaining behaviour. Genetic explanation works with different genes individuals inherit, and the causality between the differences between these genes and human behaviour; basically how which genes affect which behaviours. Evolutionary explanation could be considered to be relatively broader; working with humane functions and natural mechanics brought by evolution in not only an individual, but the species as a whole. The neural connections of the brain and complex associations with it makes regarding past experience with others concerns a neural explanation of jealousy. The role hormones and various chemicals play in the process of thought and response to situations that trigger jealousy would be the case for physiological explanation. The role of inherited genes and their role in defining characteristics of thought processes and reactions to a possible threat to the relationship with a significant someone would be the concern of genetic explanation. The role of various biological and social mechanisms in the human brain, developed through natural selection, in defining the characteristics of jealousy-inflicted conflict and methods of coping with it would be the subject of evolutionary explanations. FQ. 13 : How do learning and cognitive explanations differ? How would you apply each of them toward an understanding of jealousy? Learning explanation is rather concerned with what kind of changes on the human behaviour certain environmental experiences can inflict. Cognitive explanations take in consideration the effects of these environmental experiences to previous or inherent knowledge or beliefs, and uses these effects on cognitive abilities as a step towards understanding how behaviour changes through experience. Learning explanations, in the context of understanding jealousy, could be used to analyse the jealous experiences of a person with past significant others. This would help understand the thought patterns that led to a certain idea of jealousy, and how this inflicts a certain reaction towards the potential threat or the significant other. Cognitive explanations take in account the unconscious memory and in-built mechanisms of the mind as well. This could help understand what processes of the mind while thinking about a threatening relationship were involved in the thought process – as well as what environmental and social stimuli was received and how it was processed to come up with an idea and a response to perceived jealousy. FQ. 14 : How do social and cultural explanations differ? How would you apply each of them toward an understanding of jealousy? Social psychology is concerned with immediate results of social and environmental input on individuals and groups; whereas cultural explanations observe a deal of settled social traditions as well, to draw a conclusion about their effects on people’s behaviour and thoughts. An application of social psychology towards jealousy would be analysing a person’s idea about a relationship, what is perceived as a possible threat to a social relationship. A cultural approach would involve the understanding of an agreed upon definition of social or romantic infidelity, what pattern of thoughts and reactions and generally accepted for such situation and generally how it is seen convenient to deal with them. FQ. 15 : What constitutes a developmental explanation? How would you apply a developmental explanation toward an understanding of jealousy?

A developmental explanation would regard the changes in behaviour, emotions and thoughts in different ages. People would likely be prone to value nurture as a child and begin to seek a relationship built on mutual interests as they grow; these priorities can be changed to sexuality, romanticism, trust or cooperation depending on the age and experiences. Different interpretations of what a relationship comes across, and what does the new conditions mean for both parties from the perspective of what the relationship relies on, could be applied to an understanding of jealousy. FQ. 16 : What are some research specialties in psychology that are not defined primarily by the level of analysis employed? Some of these research specialties include sensory psychology and perceptual psychology, as well as some other custom types defined as psychology of emotion or psychology of motivation. FQ. 17 : What are the main divisions of academic studies? How does psychology link them together? Main three divisions of academic studies are natural sciences, humanities and social sciences; psychology is considered a hub science, in the middle of these three disciplines. On the natural sciences end it has certainly strong connections to biology and chemistry (behavioural neuroscience, behavioural genetics and evolutionary psychology) as well as with sociology and anthropology on the social sciences front (social psychology, cultural psychology). It is also tied with humanities as psychology is basically a study of what people do. Everything they create, the processes and the influences would be within the scope of psychology.

Chapter 2

FQ. 1 : How did Clever Hans give the appearance of answering questions, and how did Oskar Pfungst unveil Hans’s methods? Clever Hans has learned to distinguish and interpret subtle bodily movements of observers and used them to comprehend expected (and often correct) answers and give those answers to fulfil the duty. Pfungst has revealed Hans’s methods by conducting an experiment that involved manipulating Hans’s ability to observe the people around him. By restricting Hans’s vision, having the person asking not know the answer or removing the observers or the person asking from his sight, he found out that Hans couldn’t interpret the answers when he didn’t have any subtle movements to use as a reference. FQ. 2 : How are observations, theories, and hypotheses related to one another in scientific research? The data provided by observations are interpreted by theories as theories use this data as a primary basis. Hypotheses are specific, concrete predictions deducted from a vast and vague theory. FQ. 3 : How does The Clever Hans story illustrate ( 1 ) the value of scepticism, ( 2 ) the value of controlled experimentation, and ( 3 ) the need for researchers to avoid communicating their expectations to subjects? This story shows us, firstly, how valuable it is to not give in to the fascination of a strange claim and to follow an objective path in questioning such claims. This way, the inquirer will lead a study to actually investigate – and to disprove – these rather unbelievable claims, not just try to prove. Critical thinking also plays a role in this situation, as Pfungst, according to his previous experience and knowledge about the world, had to embrace a new point of view upon every failure to prove his claim. After formulating a theory and hypothesizing, Pfungst also had to change his pattern of thought multiple times upon changing variables in his experiment and gaining more results. He changed the ability of Hans to observe his environment, the ability of inquirers to subtly move by seizing them the answers or moving them out of Hans’s vision. He had recorded and interpreted these results, and sometimes advanced through his claims as new information was obtained. He has changed the conditions in which Hans answered the questions to gather new information – as well as to eliminate incorrect approaches. Also he had not let Hans interpret his expectations as well by consciously ceasing his subtle movements. He has hid his expectations while inquiring Hans’s abilities, and this has helped gain a clearer and more objective perspective on what they depend on. FQ. 4 : How can an experiment demonstrate the existence of a cause-effect relation between two variables? An experiment consists of different types of variables; namely the independent variable which is hypothesized to affect the other variable when changed, and the dependent variable which is hypothesized to be affected by the changes in the other variable. An experiment seeks to describe a causal relation between these two by changing the independent variable and observing its effects on the dependent variable. It is important to keep any other variable constant while conducting this study. FQ. 5 : What were the independent and dependent variables in Pfungst’s experiment with Clever Hans?

The independent variable was Hans’s ability to see, to determine if he would or would not be able to obtain visual cues at a certain moment. The dependent variable was the percentage of questions Hans responded correctly, defined by the state of the independent variable during each response. FQ. 6 : What were the independent and dependent variables in DiMascio’s experiment on treatments for depression? Why were the subjects randomly assigned to the different treatments rather than allowed to choose their own treatment? The independent variable was the type of treatment the subjects received – or hadn’t; the dependent variable was their degree of depression after 16 weeks. The subjects were randomly assigned types of treatment to eliminate any bias towards the results, as well as to balance the distribution of the treatments fairly and equally. FQ. 7 : What are the differences in procedure between a correlational study and an experiment? How do the types of conclusions that can be drawn differ between a correlational study and an experiment? In experiments, the researchers have first-hand control over independent variable and can directly observe what changes in an independent variable cause what differences in the dependent variable. In a correlational study, however, for legal, practical or ethical reasons the researchers are not given direct control over the situation. They observe various pre-existing conditions to assess a relation between primal conditions and the outcomes. However, correlational studies do not define for certain a cause and effect based relation between these variables as they cannot just be altered to serve the study. FQ. 8 : How does an analysis of Baumrind’s classic study of parental disciplinary style illustrate the difficulty of trying to infer cause and effect from a correlation? It seems as the study establishes a direct relation between parental disciplinary styles and child behaviour; but since the researcher did not interfere with any variable, it is highly possible – and likely – that there are other aspects contributing to these classifications and their relations that were not taken into account. Since in a correlational study it is not possible to manipulate certain conditions and observe their effects on the outcome, any link that is being tried to be established between the disciplinary style and the behaviour of children would be much weaker than it would be with an experiment. FQ. 9 : How do descriptive studies differ, in method and purpose, from experiments and from correlational studies? Experiments and correlational studies both try to assess a relationship that varies in strength, but is existent nonetheless. Descriptive studies, however, are only interested in the conditions and try to define a certain behaviour, mind-set or a mental condition; their prevalence, increase etc. without trying to assert a specific initiator or a set of conditions within a cause-effect spectrum. FQ. 10 : What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of laboratory studies and field studies? Laboratory studies offer greater control over the variables as it is a more controlled environment. Researchers are able to manipulate the variables to their desire to observe clearly how the outcome changes. However, the fact that the subject is under careful observation can sometimes alter their behaviour and lead the researchers to record artificial, unnatural outcomes, which can then obscure the results of the study. A field study is much more convenient in this case; the subject is in an environment

that is a part of its everyday life, and so their observed behaviour is more natural and would probably ensure a clearer outcome of the study. However the researchers’ control over the field is much scarce, so it might not be possible to alter the variables to observe their effects clearly. FQ. 11 : How do self-report methods, naturalistic observations and tests differ from one another? What are some advantages and disadvantages of each? Self-report methods are identified by the own statements of the subject about their behaviour and mental state. Naturalistic observations, however, do not interfere with the subject or even come into contact – they are mere observations of the subject in their ordinary life. In tests, the researcher deliberately obstructs the subject’s pathway by presenting a problem or a question, and the factor of interference separates this method from naturalistic observations. Self-report methods are a direct procedure to extract exact answers from the subject without having to observe them and deduct possible explanations. While being relatively fast and direct, self-report methods are often risky that the subject might – intentionally or not – manipulate their answers and distort the outcome they may lead to. Also, self-report methods depend on content that can be subjective, misinterpreted or remembered incorrectly; this fact renders self-report methods’ reliability somewhat arguable. Naturalistic observations, on the other hand, present a clearer image of what might a person’s everyday life, and the thoughts and emotions that they go through in the meantime. This method ensures a more naturalistic answer, but due to the fact that the subjects are aware of the researchers’ presence, they can – again, intentionally or not – change the way they behave and reflect their thoughts and emotions, which can again obstruct a healthy analysis of the results. Tests are convenient to perform and can be scored easily on a basic scale, however they are, by nature, artificial and sometimes do not fully reflect how the behaviour, thoughts and emotions derived from the test results could be applied to everyday situations. FQ. 12 : How do the mean, median and standard deviation help describe a set of numbers? The mean is the sum of the data divided by the number of data, the median is the score that is in the exact middle when all the data is put in an order from the smallest to the largest, and the deviation is a measure of how much the individual scores fall apart from the mean. These information help explain the variability of a set of scores; which indicates how apart each data falls from each other and the mean. FQ. 13 : How does a correlation coefficient describe the direction and strength of a correlation? How can correlations be depicted in scatter plots? A correlation coefficient calculation produces a score ranging from - 1 to + 1. The absolute value of the score defines the strength of the correlation. Correlation between two variables can be placed onto this scale. Results ranging from - 1 to 0 show an inverse proportion between the variables which means an increase in one of them can cause a decrease in the other. Results ranging from 0 to + 1 describe a direct proportion between the variables which means an increase in one results in an increase in the other, and a decrease in one results in a decrease in the other. These correlations can be depicted on a scatter plot by designing plots that show one of the variables and the one variable that is being tried to be measured, and by pinpointing every variable within the plot to the exact point they fall on. If these points are tightly clustered to form a line, it can be concluded that they have a strong correlation. If they are scattered across the plot and do not form a visible line, the conclusion is that they have a weak correlation. FQ. 14 : Why is it necessary to perform inferential statistics before drawing conclusions from the data in a research study?

Inferential statistics are a method of assessing the real effect of the variables in a research study. It helps understand how much of the results obtained were doings of “luck” – or uncontrollable facts, and how much could actually be attributed to the variables that the researchers had accounted for. FQ. 15 : What does it mean to say that a result from a research study is statistically significant at the 5 % level? It means that through inferential statistics, the results obtained from a study is conclusively largely due to the variables that the researchers have accounted for; and a small part of these results – 5 % or smaller

• were due to chance or circumstances that were unaccounted for. FQ. 16 : How is statistical significance affected by the size of the effect, the number of subjects or observations, and the variability of the scores within each group? A large effect size is less likely to be caused by pure luck than a small effect size, therefore it is more likely that large effects sizes constitute higher statistical significance. Similarly, larger subject numbers render the chance of pure luck being the only factor significantly low. This means that the more subjects there are, the more statistical significance it is possible to attribute to the study. The variability is the spread of scores depending on variables accounted for or not, therefore less variability within subjects indicates a lower effect of luck or chance, and a higher statistical significance of the data. FQ. 17 : What is the difference between random variation in behaviour and bias, and why is bias the more serious problem? Random variance is, by definition, a set of randomly scattered scores that are not necessarily related to the study that can be calculated and, to an extent, eliminated. Bias, however, is an inherent error within the set of scores or the measurement elements that can’t be detected or eliminated; and could constitute a completely wrong result of a study that would not be detectable. Therefore bias is a greater threat for a healthy result since it is not within the natural spectrum of scores and variance that scientific studies can account for. FQ. 18 : How can a nonrepresentative selection of research subjects introduce bias into a) an experiment and b) a descriptive study? A nonrepresentative selection of subjects can lead to pre-existing conditions and mentalities to obstruct a clear view of the true results in a study. These differences cannot always be detected if a nonrepresentative selection is the case; however if the pre-existing conditions of the subjects in an experiment are not taken into account during the determination of techniques, then these variances can be calculated and separated from the actual results afterwards. Likewise, a descriptive study needs to make use of subjects with equally distributed variance, which means these researchers need to avoid directing their study to a single portion of the subjects that could introduce bias into the study, because of some factors in their nature or relations with the study that cannot be taken into account. FQ. 19 : What is the difference between the reliability and the validity of a measurement procedure? How can lack of validity contribute to bias? Reliability is the extent to which a method of measurement proves accurate depending on different measurements by different observers. Validity, however, is the applicability of the data measured to the

actual question of the study. A lack of validity would introduce incorrect correlations between various data, which could cause incorrect assumptions to be made about to question, using true data that introduces bias because of its unsuitableness to the question and a vagueness in describing the terms that would be used as criteria. FQ. 20 : How can we assess the validity of a measurement procedure? If a study is replicable – meaning that it yields the same or similar results when executed again, it is considered valid. Correlating the scores obtained with a different indicator – called a criterion – of the characteristics to be measured is also one effective way of assessing validity to a measurement technique. FQ. 21 : How can the supposed phenomenon of facilitated communication by people with autism be explained as an observer-expectancy effect? The so-called facilitator guided the other person’s hand to help tem type the words they are intending to. However, studies have shown that these facilitators – consciously or not – led the other person’s hand to the keys by subtle movements, constituting a guidance to the hand. These subtle movements were results of the facilitator’s expectances of what key would be pressed next. This constitutes an example for observer-expectancy effect. FQ. 22 : What are two ways by which an observer’s expectations can bias results in a typical experiment? How does blind observation prevent such bias? An observer might be prone to subconsciously demonstrate cues towards the results they expect from the subjects, leading the subjects to actually be effected by these signals and producing the expected outcome. Another way this can occur is that observers might misinterpret ambiguous or vague signals from the subjects as being closer to those that they expected from the subjects, leading to a false evaluation of the shown behaviour. Blind observation ensures that the observer lacks the information about the study procedure and content that can cause them to produce any biases. FQ. 23 : How can subjects’ expectancies bias the results of an experiment? How does a double-blind procedure control both subjects’ and observers’ expectations? A subject can subconsciously condition themselves that a certain treatment will affect them in a certain way, and this can cause the expected effects to actually appear, not as an effect of treatment but because of the subjects’ expectancies. A double-blind procedure constitutes that neither the observers nor the subjects know the nature of the treatment the subjects receive, which prevents both parties from misinterpreting certain cues as actual effects of the treatment. FQ. 24 : What are ethical concerns pertaining to privacy, discomfort, and animal welfare in psychological research? How do researchers strive to minimize problems related to these concerns? Regarding privacy, an aspect is that the subjects would have to share information only to the extent that they feel comfortable about doing so. Anonymity is a main aspect of these studies as well; the personal data collected from the subjects by the researchers should be kept in ways that ensure anonymity. Another concern that has been raised regards possible discomfort and harm; if there is a risk of discomfort and

harm to the subjects during the execution of the study, alternative ways that would prevent the discomfort and harm should be sought. If these endeavours are without result, the subjects need to be disclosed the information regarding possible discomfort and harm during these studies in a procedure called informed consent, and also be made aware that they are allowed to quit the study at any time they want. Deceiving subjects is sometimes a necessity for the sake of the study, however this has been viewed as an ethically compromised practice. To balance out the short falling of informing of the subjects, they are instead debriefed; meaning the true nature of the study has been disclosed to them after the session. Animal welfare has been a widely discussed topic throughout modern psychology; unlike past studies, aspect of animal welfare has become of great importance. The animals need to be taken care of properly, and unnecessary suffering must not be implied. This also indicates the researchers’ responsibility of ensuring that the benefits of the study would outweigh or at least balance the harm or deprivation caused to the animals.

Chapter 3

FQ. 1 : How can genes affect behavioural traits through their role in protein synthesis? Genes are influential in regulating the body’s production of various types of proteins that regulate physical development. These physical developments, along with environmental stimuli, constitute our behaviour. FQ. 2 : What does it mean to say that genes can influence behavioural traits only through interaction with the environment? How are genes involved in long-term behavioural changes derived from experience? The genes would not influence behavioural traits only by themselves; they require environmental stimuli to be activated and to produce a proper response in the form of changes in physical traits. The further interaction is made with a certain aspect of environment, the more and greater variety of proteins are produced, the more bodily and nervous changes are induced; therefore the behaviour changes. Therefore we can conclude that changes in behaviour are a result of a constant interaction between the environment and genes. FQ. 3 : How can the same genotype produce various phenotypes? For identical twins who share the same genotype, even the smallest of differences in environmental stimuli can add up to different inductions of genes that trigger different proteins to be produced; therefore internal and external bodily traits to develop in different ways. FQ. 4 : How does meiosis produce egg or sperm cells that are all genetically different from one another? During meiosis, instead of directly splitting in two after the chromosomes have been copied, the cell instead splits in four and before this, the copied chromosomes line up with each other and randomly exchange parts to randomise the gene variations of each cell. When the cell splits, four cells with randomly distributed genetic content is produced from a single cell with identically ordered genetic content to other body cells. FQ. 5 : What is the advantage of producing genetically diverse offspring? Rather than producing an individual with the exact same genetic properties, adding variation to genetic arrangement ensures a higher chance of adaptation to environmental conditions. By having a completely unique set of genetic information than that of anyone else, every individual has an increased chance of adapting better to their environment and stand a higher chance of surviving any unforeseen condition. This also ensures that their offspring will have a completely unique set of genetic composition as well. FQ. 6 : What is the difference between a dominant and a recessive gene (or allele)? A dominant gene (or allele) is one that is more prone to produce effects in both homozygote and heterozygote conditions. Recessive genes, however, can only produce their effects in homozygote conditions. For a recessive gene (or allele) being heterozygote means that there is a dominant one at the

other end of the pair which will deactivate the effects of the recessive gene (or allele). FQ. 7 : Why do three-fourths of the offspring with two heterozygous parents show the dominant trait and one-fourth show the recessive trait? When the genes of the parents are crossed, it is shown that one-fourths of the offspring is homozygous for a dominant gene, two-fourths is heterozygous, and one-fourths is homozygous for a recessive gene. Since dominant genes will produce their effects regardless of homozygous or heterozygous conditions, three-fourths of the offspring show the dominant trait with only on being homozygous for it. The remaining one-fourths of the offspring is homozygous for the recessive gene which would show its effects, for the lack of a more dominant gene. FQ. 8 : Why might a disease caused by two recessive genes persist in the gene pool? A disease that requires two recessive genes at the same locus could still, despite being potentially fatal even, could persist not because of the disease itself but because of some bodily conditions it brings. Sometimes the effects of the genes that carry a disease can be surprisingly beneficent in coping with a different environmental challenge, maybe even another disease. The real benefit of these conditions would be for the carriers – those with heterozygous alleles in a locus. They could both benefit from the single gene that produces the effects that would be beneficial for them in a specific setting; and also not be effected by the disease itself. If the potential of passing on or being threatened by the disease is outweighed by the potential benefits of having those specific genes, the disease might still be able to stay in the gene pool. FQ. 9 : How did Scott and Fuller show that the difference in fearfulness between cocker spaniels and basenji hounds is controlled by a single gene locus, with the “fear” allele dominant over the “non-fear” allele? Scott and Fuller had conducted an experiment involving breeding these dogs and observing their behaviour towards the presence of a human. Where basenjis were afraid of human presence, cocker spaniels did not show any signs of intimidation. When the researchers have bred these specimens, they have observed that all the cocker spaniel – basenji hybrids (F 1 ) have shown fear towards humans and therefore concluded that fear in these species was determined by a single dominant gene locus. They have decided to take the experiment one step further and cross-breed the F 1 hybrids with the expectation that three quarters would show fear and one quarter wouldn’t (F 2 ). Their predictions were confirmed by the test results. They have also mated F 1 hybrids with purebred cockers with the expectations that half of them would show fear and half of them wouldn’t, which was also confirmed by the results. FQ. 10 : Why would it be a mistake to conclude, from Scott and Fuller’s work that fear in dogs is caused just by one gene or that it is caused just by genes and not by the environment? Scott and Fuller’s experiment did not utilise every possible variable. They have only determined that fear was caused by one gene in these specific breeds of dogs. They have neither conducted any studies nor had any conclusive result about whether fear in any other dog breed was controlled by a single gene as well. A later study of Scott ( 1963 ) has found out that deprivation of human presence to cocker spaniel puppies for the first 4 months of their lives caused them to be afraid of humans. Scott has succeeded in changing environmental conditions to render genetic effects inactive. The conditions that the puppies in the

previous experiment was also a deterrent; showing basenji puppies constant affection and isolating cocker spaniel puppies from human contact could have changed the results on the contrary as well. FQ. 11 : How do genes and the environment interact to affect individuals with PKU? Individuals with PKU are not inherently “sick” – their regular diet is a crucial deterrent of the disease. Babies with the PKU genes that have been placed in a phenylalanine-free diet have showed no signs of intellectual disorders. These babies have grown to be adults that are able to eat phenylalanine without any negative consequences that the PKU genes would cause. Therefore it is possible to conclude that the PKU gene and a diet containing phenylalanine could interact to show the genes’ negative consequences on individuals with the genes. FQ. 12 : How does the distribution of scores for a polygenic trait differ from that usually obtained for a single-gene trait? A trait obtained from a single-gene trait can be placed into one of two groups – there is either the genes’ possible effects, or not. In the case of polygenic traits, however, many more than one gene is responsible for a trait so the severity of the trait can be placed on a spectrum. For single-gene traits it is easy to detect the frequency; it depends on the genetic structure of the parents, the individual and the chances of these single genes being passed on to the offspring is easy to calculate. However in the case of polygenic traits, the possible scores obtained is placed on a scale. A normal distribution of this trait would form a scale with the most scores in the middle with the prevalence decreasing towards the two extremes. In conclusion it is not possible to simply categorise polygenic traits as it is for single-gene traits; they have to be placed on a spectrum to analyse the prevalence and tendency towards the extremes. FQ. 13 : How are the characteristics of animals shaped through selective breeding? After various polygenic characteristics of animals have been detected, located on the spectrum and decided to be promoted; the process followed with basically evaluating every animal for their designated trait and breeding those who best fulfilled the trait that was being searched for. For single-gene traits the process was quick and easy to determine; for polygenic traits it was a lot slower and more gradual. FQ. 14 : How did Tryon produce “maze bright” and “maze dull” strains of rats? How did he show that the difference was the result of genes, not rearing? He has bred the rats that had the most errors while in a maze within themselves and that had the least errors within themselves, and kept the two strains apart from each other and bred these strains within themselves. After 7 generations the result was that the strain of “maze bright” rats and “maze dull” rats have almost completely strained from each other with almost no overlap within the scores, meaning even the worst of the “maze bright” rats was better than the best of “maze dull” rats. To prevent the influence of fostering on their abilities of learning mazes, Tryon has cross-fostered the strains, meaning a strain’s offspring was raised by the adults of the other; this has not changed the perceived influence of genes over the strains’ abilities, therefore Tyron has concluded that this ability depended on genes and not rearing. FQ. 15 : Why is the strain difference produced by Tyron not properly characterized in terms of “brightness” or “dullness”?

Being dull or bright at learning a particular maze does not depend on a single trait of the rats; these traits involve a deeper influence of the learning, memory, sensory, motivational and motor processes that could, with specific changes, considerably effect the results that were obtained from the study. The level of interest that the rats show for different aspects of the maze problem could be an influence over their success as well. Being “maze bright” and “maze dull” are complex traits that comprise of many other processes and they cannot be defined by such basic terms. FQ. 16 : How might a better understanding of epigenetics change the way we view genetic inheritance? Epigenetics are not responsible for changing fundamentally our genetic information, but rather operating as a switch for certain genes – lifetime experience with social environment, eating habits or nurture routines are shown to effect the offspring in ways that cannot be directly attributed to the genes – because the possible gene pool is simply that of their parents – but epigenetics. A better understanding of epigenetics could enable us to view genetic inheritance of traits from some other point of view than directly through DNA, and with more regards to personal experience of life and various environmental stimuli. FQ. 17 : What insight led Darwin to his theory of evolution? How is natural selection similar to and different from artificial selection? He has been influenced by artificial selection – the process of breeding an animal or a plant with those who share the desired trait to promote the observable effects of this trait. This has been the foundation for Darwin’s idea of natural selection on the basis that it promotes the reproduction of animals and plants that inherit demanded or necessary traits, and that those who don’t, die off without passing their genes on. However, the difference lies in the principles that artificial selection and natural selection rely on; natural selection does not depend on the needs and desires of humans but rather the obstacles and conditions of nature that the species have to overcome through developing various traits. FQ. 18 : How are genes involved in evolution? What are the sources of genetic diversity on which natural selection acts? Genes are involved in transferring genetic information through generations, and two main mechanics that genes use to change the genetic information in every step are the crossing over of various strand parts and mutation. Mutations are often harmful and therefore wiped out by environmental conditions, but they can occasionally be beneficent as well. Many mutations that contribute to the survival and reproduction of a species add up in time to constitute greater and much more complex evolution. Although immediate conditions of an environment and its effects on a living being does not directly pass on to its offspring; evolution, in the case of extremely severe conditions, can occur rather rapidly and observably. FQ. 19 : How does change in the environment affect the direction and speed of evolution? How did a study of finches illustrate the role of environmental change in evolution? If the change in environmental conditions is fast and severe enough, pretty rapid changes can be observed, and be passed on to the offspring. The study on finches have shown that starving finches have quickly adapted to the new environmental conditions by strengthening their beaks to be able to break the closed seeds. These changes and its variations can have direct influence over evolution.

FQ. 20 : What are three mistaken beliefs about evolution, all related to the misconception that foresight is involved? Firstly, it has been believed that evolution served a specific purpose, precisely in anticipation of changes in environmental conditions, even though it is impossible for animals to anticipate specific changes in conditions and competitors; also many of these changes that turned out to be beneficial were neutral or harmful at the time they have appeared. Secondly, evolution was believed to have a destination and a level of progress relative to other living beings. This perception is still relevant; humans are believed to be the “most evolved” of animals, even though the level of evolution is impossible to measure simply by subjecting every living being to the adaptable conditions of a single one of them. Lastly, evolution was believed to eliminate evil and promote good in the environment, even though the nature does not inherit any innate moral compass, therefore does not strive to serve a perception that has only been embraced by us humans. FQ. 21 : How does an understanding of evolution provide a basis for functionalism in psychology? Evolution argues that the physical and mental traits that promote survival and reproduction the most are developed more and passed on through generations. Functionalism, stemming from this mechanic, argues that the same rule applies to behavioural traits as well; those which promote our survival and reproduction also get developed and passed on through generations. FQ. 22 : How are distal explanations of behaviour different from, but complementary to, proximate explanations? Distal explanations are aimed to explain the evolutionary mechanics and reasons behind certain behaviour, whereas proximate explanations strive to explain immediate environmental stimuli that triggers such behaviour. These explanations complete each other from the perspective of long-term evolutionary mechanics, how they promote survival and reproduction and the immediate execution, short-term demonstration of the functions of these traits as well as the stimuli that triggers them, therefore are complementary to each other. FQ. 23 : What are four reasons for the existence of traits or behaviours that do not serve survival and reproductive functions? First of them is that some traits that do not serve survival and reproductive functions used to serve these purposes. Some of these traits were fundamental to our ancestors’ survival, however they have been rendered useless by our evolutionary pathway and various changes in our environmental settings. Secondly, these neutral traits may have been produced as by-products or side effects of other evolutionary traits. Thirdly, some traits may have been results of pure chance. Inconsequential traits are not eliminated or promoted by natural selection and therefore have been prospering around the world, seemingly without any reason. A final reason could be that evolution could only furnish us with such capabilities that we would possess certain drives for certain purposes, with no guarantee of coming across them – or being able to distinguish every single scenario from one another with regard to whether these drives would come in handy; in another words, these evolutionary functions can sometimes not serve a purpose for the exact situation, but the primal drive that is perceived to lie beneath. FQ. 24 : What evidence supports the idea that many human emotional expressions are examples of species-typical behaviours?

The fact that these behaviours are universal – meaning they can be observed almost equally in every part of the world including those societies that have had almost no other human contact – is an important indicator of these expressions are species-typical behaviour. Also some children that have had no chance of learning and imitating these behaviours because they were either blind or blind and deaf from birth are also demonstrating the same behaviour, which goes to support the idea. FQ. 25 : How do human emotional expressions illustrate the point that species-typical behaviours can be modified by learning? Some of these universal expressions differ in characteristics as in the prevalence and the aim they are being used for. This indicates that these species-typical behaviours can be altered by cultural accumulation throughout various parts of the world. FQ. 26 : How do the examples of two-legged walking and language in humans, and singing in white crowned sparrows, illustrate the point that species-typical behaviours may depend on learning? Two-legged walking and usage of language is practiced constantly by human infants on their own initiative, however during this species-typical practice sessions they don’t only learn how to speak and walk in terms of physiology; they also learn how and why they do that. If they were to be deprived of any human contact for the first years of their lives, they wouldn’t show any struggle to acquire these skills. White-crowned sparrows need to hear the singing as they are chicks so they can learn and imitate in during the mating season. If they are deprived of the songs as chicks, they won’t sing themselves even though these actions are supposed to be species-typical and innate. FQ. 27 : How is the concept of biological preparedness related to that of species-typical behaviour? How do the examples of human walking and talking illustrate biological preparedness? Biological preparedness is the nervous, physical and mental predisposition of a living being to acquire certain skills and complete certain tasks. This biological preparedness constitutes the base upon which an individual builds their species-typical behaviour. In the examples of two-legged walking and talking, human infants are born with adequate proper muscular and nervous structures within their faces and limbs – as well as proper development of the parts of brain that manage these actions – that allow them to walk on two legs or speak. FQ. 28 : Why is the concept of species-typical behaviour relative rather than absolute? Species-typical behaviour, although stemming from genetic disposition, is considerably influenced by experience and environmental conditions and therefore its absoluteness should be regarded with a healthy scepticism in order to better evaluate the environment’s role in these behaviours before we regard them as species-typical or not. FQ. 29 : What is the difference between a homology and an analogy, and how can researchers tell whether a similarity between two species in some traits is one or the other? A homology is any functional similarity that is inherited from a shared ancestor and has been mostly preserved regardless of all other evolutionary differences. Analogies, however, do not stem from common ancestry but rather convergent evolution – that is, two species that do not share a common ancestry

developing same or similar characteristics in accordance with their environmental conditions. Scientists can determine which category a similarity falls under by looking at the last common ancestor of the two species in question; if this ancestor has the same characteristic that is being investigated, then it can be concluded that this characteristic is a homology. If not, the contrary conclusion can be made. FQ. 30 : How are homologies used for learning about (a) the physiological mechanisms and (b) the evolutionary pathways of species-typical traits? Homologies can help identify the purpose and physiological mechanics of a certain behaviour and its role in serving a desired purpose. A certain trait can be analysed by comparing it to the similar traits of other creatures who have shared a common ancestor with the living being in question. This comparison can help assess the aforementioned values to these species-typical traits. FQ. 31 : How do studies of homologies between humans and other primates support the view that the human greeting smile and the human happy smile have separate evolutionary origin? These studies have shown that the greeting smile that didn’t require a happy mood was generally used to indicate submission, non-aggression and friendliness; and the genuine smile has been found out to have different physical properties than a greeting smile that rendered it subconsciously believable ad therefore impossible to fully replicate. FQ. 32 : How can we use analogies to make inferences about the distal functions of species-typical traits? Analysing analogies in different living beings cannot be used for detecting evolutionary origins but rather showing commonalities in the living environments and conditions of various beings. Assessment of analogies can give us clues about the living conditions, certain behaviours and species-typical traits of the two species in question. FQ. 33 : What is Trivers’ theory of parental investment? The theory of parental investment argues that in a species, a sex that is more caring of a parent will be more selective in choosing a mate than the less-investing sex, and the less-investing sex will strive harder to mate with a more caring sex. FQ. 34 : Based on Trivers’ theory of parental investment, why does high investment by the female lead to (a) polygyny, (b) large size of males, (c) high selectivity in the female’s choice? The female has relatively much higher investment than the male, because of physiological and genetic dispositions and limitations. Since in a given time period the male has a potentially much higher mating count than the female, males can often mate with multiple females in a given time while each of these females can only support one infant, and therefore can be impregnated by only one male. Males often fight each other for mating rights over a group consisting of many females, and usually the larger, heavier, stronger and more aggressive one wins. This has enabled these physically superior males to pass on more genes in comparison to the weaker ones. This has also led to a high selectivity in the female’s choice. Since with the aforementioned biological and physiological limitations the females can produce less offspring than the males, the females ensure that their infants would be stronger and larger by mating only with the stronger males so their offspring can successfully create an offspring of their own as well.

FQ. 35 : What conditions promote the evolution of polyandry? How do sex differences within polyandrous species support Trivers’ theory? If a species’ females are able to reproduce quickly and can produce more offspring than only she or she and her partner can care for, the best strategy of the female is to mate with as much males as she can, then leave the offspring with the male to be the main or sole carer. This is observer more in species that lay eggs, since the physical investment the female has to make is much less relative to that of mammals. Consistent with the theory, the females are observed to be stronger and larger than the males in these specific polyandrous species, in order to be able to preserve their family and territory as well as to make an appeal for the males and to intimidate the females and to eliminate any threat they might pose. FQ. 36 : What conditions promote the evolution of monogamy? Why are sex differences in size and strength generally lacking in monogamous species? Monogamy is often observed in species that require both parents for the offspring to be nurtured and raised. Often one parent cares and protects the infants while the other leaves to bring food. This mechanic promotes social monogamy between such species. Since it is favourable for both sexes that their mates stay socially tied to them, there is no need for competition in size or strength between the members of the same sex. Therefore both sexes physically develop on average the same, which identifies the lack of difference in size and strength. FQ. 37 : For what evolutionary reasons might monogamously mated females and males sometimes copulate with partners other than their mates? For an individual, mating with an opposite sex that is stronger than their socially monogamous partner is often favourable since it will produce stronger offspring as well. Since there is no detectable difference is size or strength between individuals, they increase their chances of having stronger offspring by mating with their neighbours. The females ensure that their eggs can be fertilised by a quality sperm, and males ensure that they can populate as much as possible while protecting the offspring they have from their socially monogamous mate. FQ. 38 : What appear to be the evolutionary advantages of promiscuity for chimpanzees and bonobos? In what ways is promiscuity more fully developed for bonobos than for chimpanzees? Chimpanzees and bonobos have adapted promiscuity in order to relieve the sexual stress between individuals of the same sex, specifically over that who mates with who. It also obstructs the male behaviour of killing the young that are not their own, by basically confusing everyone over who fathered which young. Both methods have enabled these species to form groups that live in relative harmony. Chimpanzees sometimes show monogamous tendencies by forcing their presence over a female, which doesn’t occur in bonobo groups. For them, sexual activity of any sort is a way of reducing tension whether it is caused by reproductive behaviour or not. Therefore bonobos have adapted more to promiscuity than chimpanzees in grounds to how fundamental of an element sex constitutes for them. FQ. 39 : What evidence suggests that humans evolved as a partly polygynous species? How is this consistent with Trivers’ parental investment theory? Humans are part of a small portion of mammals that receive both direct and indirect support from their paternal figure, making monogamy consistent with our nature. However, how crucial is the support of

the father is a little less than that of the mother, so this stays consistent with the polygynous nature as well, since a male can biologically father many more offspring than a female can. In some cultures polygyny is still practised, although it is not considered ethically suitable in many modern societies. The lack of a significant difference between the males and females, as well as the strengthening of the immune system and various other traits is a deterrent of our sexual behaviour in this case as well. FQ. 40 : From an evolutionary perspective, what are the functions of romantic love and sexual jealousy, and how is this supported by cross-species comparisons? How is sexual unfaithfulness explained? Romantic love and sexual jealousy stems from our general need of composing a family with both parental figures and their offspring. While love creates bonds, jealousy often tries to preserve them by fending off possible threats. Comparison between humans and superb fairy wrens show that their monogamous behaviour has similar – but obviously analogic – motivations. These mechanics are means to create a durable family bond and preserve it so that meanwhile both parents can raise the young. Sexual unfaithfulness is sometimes a consequence of lust, which pushes humans to act outside moral boundaries and mate with multiple people to create more offspring to carry their genes. The male would be able to send more copies of his DNA through his offspring and a female would raise her chance of being impregnated by sperm that are superior to that of her husband. FQ. 41 : How is male violence towards infants, towards other males, and toward females explained from an evolutionary perspective? Male violence towards infants that some other male fathered could be motivated by the male demand to gain the attention of the female that is nursing the young; to get them to stop lactating and become suitable for copulation once again. Aggression and violence other males is motivated by either access to desires sources – usually females to mate – or to promote their social status within the troop. It could also be triggered by an act of threat towards the mate of a male, and their protective behaviour would be manifested by aggression and violence. Males also show aggressive behaviour to females to force copulation over them – or to prevent the female from mating other males. FQ. 42 : How do the kin selection and reciprocity theories take the altruism out of “altruism”? What observations show that both theories apply to humans as well as other animals? Kin selection seems like a form of altruism but actually does not preserve its essence due to the fact that in times of great threat or deprivation, the individual seeks the greater good of its genes and those that inherit similar genes. The main purpose is to actually ensure and help that the same genetic pool will prevail under any circumstance. This fact serves an evolutionary purpose to the seemingly altruistic individual which, to say, takes altruism out of altruism. Reciprocity theory is also a similar case; an individual decides to help non kin as much as – if not, more – than the kin in some circumstances, but this stems from the expectation that the favour will be returned one day, which also goes against the true nature of altruistic behaviour. The application of this theory has been shown with various studies. Some suggest that people who are further from their kin and closer to non kin are still predisposed to favour the kin more. A deeper analysis has shown that the regard for kin and non kin depends on the qualities of the favour that has been granted to the individual. This goes to say that humans favour kin more in some certain situations, and non kin in some other. Some animals also share food or form packs with non kin animals.

Chapter 4

FQ. 1 : What are three types of neurons, and what is the function of each? First type is the sensory neurons which are responsible for carrying nervous signals through the peripheral nerves they have formed and transmitting them to the central nervous system. The second type is motor neurons that carry out messages from the central nervous system through the nerves they form to move muscles and glands. The third type is the interneuron which is responsible for collecting, organising, integrating and carrying messages from different sources across the body. This last type only exist within the central nervous system and vastly outnumbers the other two. FQ. 2 : What are the main parts common to all or most neurons, and what is the function of each part? There is the cell body that is common in all the cells, which contains the cell nucleus and the basic machinery common to all bodily cells. There are also the dendrites that spread off from an extension of the cell body and are responsible of collecting sensory input. The axons are also a tube-like structure stemming from the cell body which connects to other neurons or muscle cells and is responsible for the transmission of messages to other structures that they are connected to. FQ. 3 : How does the resting potential arise from the distribution of ions across the cell membrane? The resting potential is the main source of action potential and is caused by the difference between the amount of positive and negative charged ions inside and outside of the cell membrane. Depending on the potassium or sodium channels being open, these ions enter and exit the cell to create the resting or action potentials. Potassium channels stay open so positively charged potassium ions flow out of the cell and join the mostly negative charged ions. This causes the imbalance between positive charges between the insides and outside of the cell, creating an electrical tension that we call resting potential. FQ. 4 : How do the two phases of the action potential (depolarization and repolarization) result from the successive opening and closing of two kinds of channels in the cell membrane? In the resting state, the cell contains more potassium and less sodium inside than there is outside. During the depolarization state, the sodium pores open up to let highly concentrated sodium into the cell. For a moment there is an imbalance inside the cell that renders the environment temporarily positive which pushes potassium outside, just as the potassium pores open up. This constitutes the repolarization state. These two stages together form the action potential. To rebalance internal and external contents of the cell, a structure called the sodium-potassium pump releases sodium outside while potassium is let back inside. FQ. 5 : How is an axon’s conduction speed related to its diameter and to the presence or absence of a myelin sheath? A wider axon would pose less resistance, therefore conduction speed would be higher in wider axons. Myelin sheath, besides acting as a protective layer, also increases the conduction speed of the axon. FQ. 6 : How do neurotransmitters at excitatory and inhibitory synapses affect the rate at which action potentials are produced in the postsynaptic neuron? Neurotransmitters are responsible for unlocking various channels in the membrane. If this is happening

on the postsynaptic membrane of an excitatory synapse, sodium channels open and sodium flows inside the cell. This decreases the negativity of the cell’s insides, causing depolarization which increases the rate of action potentials in that neuron. If it is an inhibitory synapse, potassium channels open instead. The potassium flows out which increases the negativity inside that causes the cell to hyperpolarize, causing a decrease in the rate which action potentials are triggered. FQ. 7 : When are most neurons “born” and when do they begin to form synapses? Most neurons are born during the third and fourth months of gestation with a rate of several hundred thousand new neurons each minute. This process called neurogenesis lasts until adulthood, but this is the peak of the speed in which neurogenesis occurs. Around the fifth month of conception, neurons grow in size, produce more dendrites and axons and axon terminals start connecting to neurons, forming synapses. FQ. 8 : How does the metaphor of sculpting apply to brain development? Brain development could be considered similar to a sculptor having a block of marble that he chiselled down to an artistic creation that is less in amount of material but superior in aesthetic and function. During the sculpting process, the artwork goes through a rough shaping process that involves shaping the whole content by chiselling some away. Our brains go through a similar process, in which through the creation and connection of new neurons and their connections, as well as some neurons and connections dying off, it reaches its optimal state. FQ. 9 : What role might mirror neurons play in social learning? Mirror neurons are found out to enable us to follow, memorize, learn and imitate another one’s actions as well as recognize our own behaviour in others. This could be applied to social situations as well; our perceptions through mirror neurons contribute to our emotional expressions, as well as constitute an identification with others through language, expressions etc. FQ. 10 : How do researchers identify functions of areas of the human brain through (a) studying the effects of brain damage, (b) using a magnetic field to interrupt normal brain activity, (c) recording electrical activity that passes through the skull and scalp, and (d) creating images that depict patterns of blood flow? Different areas of the brain are responsible for different actions or capabilities, and researchers, by comparing the areas of the brain that have been damaged in different patients and assessing the deficits that have occurred, can estimate the function of a brain area. Researchers can also use magnetic field to inactivate or activate parts of the cerebral cortex, and observe the bodily or cognitive effects of the magnetic field on a specific portion of the cerebral cortex. Also, it is possible to use EEG to record the electrical activity throughout the brain which is reflected onto the skull and scalp. The electrodes placed enable the researchers to observe the activities of the brain – at least the surface – in different moments or during the completion of different tasks. Lastly, since more brain activity means more blood flow to that area, scientists are able to use different substances and techniques to determine the flow and accumulation of blood throughout the brain – unlike other techniques, the whole brain – and assess the amount of work that has been put to a specific area of the brain in any given moment. FQ. 11 : How do researchers damage, stimulate, and record from neurons in specific areas of nonhuman animal brains to learn about the functions of those brain areas?

Researchers can determine the functions of different parts of the brain by deliberately damaging or destroying some nerve bundles in the brain using very precise electrical and chemical instruments. They can vary the exact location of the destruction of nerves and then compare the behavioural changes of subjects to correlate the location of the brain with the function they seem to serve. The contrary can be done too; different parts of the animals’ brain can be stimulated by electrical or chemicals means to determine the effects of activation of different parts of the brain on the animal’s behaviour and drives. A third option is not to interfere with the functions of nerves but to observe them. By placing very precise tools inside a rat’s brain, it is possible to determine the actions of the neurons in different conditions. FQ. 12 : How do the autonomic and somatic motor systems differ from one another in function? How do the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic system differ from one another in function? The somatic division acts on skeletal muscles that are connected to bones and can move the skeleton while contracting. The autonomic division, however, controls the visceral muscles and glands that are on the insides of our body and do not move the skeleton while contracting. These visceral muscles and glands receive two sets of neurons; the sympathetic division is responsible for managing stressful events and increasing visceral muscle activity as well as prepare the rest of the body, including skeletal muscles, for an upcoming event that requires action. The parasympathetic division does the opposite; it is responsible for energy conserving and healing activities as well as the opposites of those that have been listed for the sympathetic division. FQ. 13 : What are three categories of functions of the spinal cord? Firstly, the spinal cord carries the somatosensory information and motor control commands through ascending and descending tracts between the body and the brain. Secondly, it arranges and controls simple reflexes that are not bound to the commands of the brain. Thirdly, it generates organized rhythmic movements without the involvement of the brain. FQ. 14 : How is the brainstem similar to and different from the spinal cord? What role does the brainstem play in the control of behaviour? Both the brainstem and the spinal cord contain motor and sensory tracts, and they both manage some reflexes and some species-typical behaviour patterns. However, the reflexes controlled by the brainstem is much more complex; it manages postural reflexes such as balance and vital reflexes such as breathing. It also manages species-typical behaviour regarding sustenance, copulation and attacking. It also manages the speed of locomotion in the spinal cord. FQ. 15 : What are the functional similarities and differences between the cerebellum and the basal ganglia? Both the basal ganglia and the cerebellum act on the management of movement, however the cerebellum acts on rapid, precise and sequential actions whereas the basal ganglia manages slow, deliberate movements. Also, the basal ganglia manages the movements and acts accordingly as they are happening, but the cerebellum plans ahead before the action has begun and initiates it as a completely programmed action. FQ. 16 : What are the main functions of the thalamus?

Thalamus is generally responsible for gathering and distributing sensory and motor tracts as well as the stimulation of the brain through the distribution of the arousal pathways. FQ. 17 : Why is the limbic system so named, and what function does it perform? Its name comes from the Latin word “limbus” meaning “border”. It is considered as a border between the primal and primitive parts of the brain and the new, advanced cerebral cortex above it. Through various organs it contains, the limbic system manages emotions as well as special coordination and encoding of memories. It also has strong connections to sensory input and their interpretations as well as the conversions of emotions into actions. FQ. 18 : What are three ways by which the hypothalamus controls the body’s internal environment? It influences the activity of the autonomic nervous system, it controls the release of various hormones and it manages various drive states such as hunger and thirst. FQ. 19 : What are the four lobes of the cortex, and what are three functional categories of areas within these lobes? The four lobes are the occipital, temporal, parietal and the frontal lobes. The main functional categories are the primary sensory areas, which gather and interpret signals from sensory nerves and tracts; the primary motor area, which sends axons down the to the motor neurons; and association areas that are made up by the rest of the cerebral cortex, interpreting sensory signals and receiving input from the lower brain and managing the processes of thought, perception and decision. FQ. 20 : What does it mean to say that cortical sensory and motor areas in the cortex are topographically organized? It indicates that adjacent neurons in the brain receive sensory signals and send out motor commands from and to adjacent neurons in another part of the body as well. FQ. 21 : What is the role of the prefrontal cortex in the control of behaviour? The prefrontal cortex receives new information and/or retrieves information from long-term memory and plans a proper action in accordance with the information. FQ. 22 : How are the movement-control functions of the nervous system summarized as a hierarchical, top-down flow of information? How is the hierarchy illustrated by an imaginative tour through the nervous system of a person who decides to eat some fresh cherries? The limbic system and association cortex decide and plan the action that is going to be taken. They send these signals down to the basal ganglia and cerebellum as well as premotor areas of the cortex. These signals and the moves the command are refined in the motor nuclei of the upper brain stem and primary motor area of cortex. Then all the commands reach motor nuclei of lower brainstem and the spinal cord to be diffused to the skeletal muscles to produce movement. In the case of eating a cherry, the limbic system sends a hunger message to the cortical areas that is it connected to. These areas analyse the visual input of the cherries and conclude that they are available for consumption. The association areas also bring about other information belonging to the cherries, such as the memory of eating cherries, the smell and the taste. The prefrontal areas decide to make a move for the cherries and eat them. The prefrontal cortex and the

limbic system send designated action plans to the basal ganglia, the cerebellum and the premotor cortex, as well as somatosensory information about the location of the cherries and the body parts. This information is used to refine the movements of the body. Some programs for more direct movements are processed and re-refined in the upper parts of the brain stem. The more delicate movements are processed again in the motor cortex, which in turn sends its output to the brainstem and spinal cord. Finally, somatic motor neurons receive the signal and convey it to skeletal muscles to produce movement. FQ. 23 : What is the difference between knowing where a brain function occurs and knowing how it occurs? Using different techniques to obstruct, activate or observe brain activity in different brain areas, scientists can discover where a function is served within the brain, but the information of the location does not define any internal biological or chemical reaction that would cause this particular part of the brain to be responsible from the function that it serves. Knowing physically how an action occurs is possible, but it is not dependant on the knowledge of this function’s place in the brain. FQ. 24 : What are some examples of long-term and short-term effects of hormones? Some long-term effects of hormones differentiation of gender from birth and into puberty, which are irreversible. The short-term effects can range from lasting a few minutes to a few days. These hormones usually prepare the body for sudden events and encounters, such as preparing the body to either engage in violence or flee the scene by pumping sugar and fat into the blood and suppressing inflammation and pain caused by physical trauma or incisions. FQ. 25 : How does the brain control the release of hormones from the two lobes of the pituitary and thereby control the release of other hormones as well? The posterior lobe of the pituitary is directly connected to the brain via blood vessels and neurosecretory cells. When stimulated by these cells, the posterior pituitary sends the hormones into bed of capillaries. Via the bed of capillaries, the hormone diffuses into the whole bloodstream. The anterior pituitary is not directly connected to the brain, however it is closely related to it. It is activated by the hypothalamus with a substance called releasing factor, which is carried to the anterior pituitary by the bed of capillaries. The releasing factor enables the anterior pituitary to produce the designated hormones and diffuse them into the bloodstream. FQ. 26 : What is some evidence that testosterone is needed to maintain the male’s sex drive? Castrated males experience a gradual but certain loss in their sex drives. When they are infused with testosterone or their brain is chemically enabled to produce testosterone again, they are observed to gradually but completely regain their sex drive. Briefly, the lack and presence of testosterone directly and rather quickly influences a male’s sex drive. FQ. 27 : What kind of experiences have been shown to increase testosterone production in men? What effects might such increased testosterone have on a man’s subsequent behaviour? It is shown that the feelings of victory, social superiority and pleasure upon encountering a female can raise the testosterone levels in a male’s bloodstream rather quickly, even within minutes. This increase in testosterone increases self-esteem, and subsequently aggression and competitiveness as well.