Supporting Students with Disabilities in the Classroom, Exams of Advanced Education

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Competency 1 - Focuses on the characteristics of typical and atypical human growth and development and the characteristics of students with various disabilities that special education teachers are likely to encounter. Learning Disabilities - Students with learning disabilities have average or above average intelligence but an unexpected academic weakness in one or more content areas. Dyslexia - Impacts a student's ability to learn to read, to recognize sound segments or letters, following along in text comprehending what they read. Dysgraphia - Impacts student's ability to learn to write, often their handwriting and/or spelling. Dyscalculia - Impacts a student's ability to understand numbers and mathematical operations, remembering math facts and the sequence of steps in math problems. Intellectual Disabilities - Students qualify as having an intellectual disability when they show developmental delays in most aspects of academic and social functioning. Communication Disorders - Students who are more likely to mispronounce sounds or have speech that lacks fluency are identified as having speech disorder. Articulation Disorders - Affects a student's ability to produce certain sounds and sound combinations. Fluency Disorders - Hesitations or stuttering Specific language Impairment - Manifests as a delay in a student's language development but the student shows no other conditions that would cause such a delay in language development (e.g., autism, deafness) Emotional Impairments - Typically, children who are identified as having emotional impairments show behaviors or emotions that are not appropriate for setting. Often they have trouble making friends, working in groups, and maintaining personal relationships. Anxiety Disorders - Characterized by excessive fears or worry. Phobias, separation anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Mood Disorders - Including depression and bipolar disorder (i.e., swings between elevated or manic mood and depression). Students who are depressed may cry often, lose motivation for things that were once enjoyable, lose weight and disregard hygiene, or have suicidal thoughts. Oppositional Defiant Disorder - Students show hostile and defiant behaviors, including temper tantrums, arguments, and irritability. Conduct Disorders - Students consistently engage in antisocial behaviors that interfere with others. Attention Disorders - Students with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are more easily distracted and divide their attention between multiple stimuli instead of staying on task when compared to others at the same developmental level. Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) - Range from mile to severe based on the degree to which they show characteristics. Atypical Language Development and Communication Delays - Many never learn to communicate successfully using spoken language. Some engage in echolalia, repeating pars of a sentence they just hear. Many show limited eye contact or extreme focus or interest in one topic or conversation. Students with ASD often have difficulty understanding figurative language and humor. Atypical Social Development - Students with autism do not seem to recognize or respond to others' emotions, social cues, and nonverbal signals. Many do not interact with others during play and/or do not engage in reciprocal interactions. Repetitive Behavior, Including Movement and Verbalizations - Tics (physical) and obsessions (attention) are common. Undesirable Behaviors - Some children with autism are aggressive toward others or engage in repetitive self-injurious behaviors. Need for Predictability - Many students with autism gain security from environmental structure and experience anxiety in unfamiliar situations. Some focus intensely on adherence to routines and become upset if things are out of place or sequence. Sensory and Movement Disorders - Some children are over-responsive to sensory stimuli, whereas others are under-responsive, some show atypical movement of the head, trunk, and limbs; clumsiness or posture; or an awkward (i.e., not smooth) gait. Intellectual Disabilties - Although students with autism spectrum disorders may have very high intelligence or low intelligence, more than half also have an intellectual disability.

The Family's Role - Parents/guardians wear many hats raising children with disabilities-they are caregivers, providers,teachers, counselors, behaviors support specialist, parents of other children without disabilities, marriage partners, information specialist/trainers of significant other family members and advocates. Role of the Parent - Provide transportation to school, activities medical care and other locations. Learning about he focus of the child's school program and reinforcing those learning behaviors efforts in the home. Implementing intervention if necessary, such as behavior management. Teaching social skills. Special Educators can Support Families in these roles: - Promoting partnership between school and home. Encouraging open communication about the student's strengths and needs, both within the family and with educators Helping the student work toward skills that increase independence and helping the families learn ways to encourage those skills at home. The Community's Role in Supporting Students with Disabilities: - Support students with disabilities through physical, social services, and training supports. Providing for physical supports, such as modified walkways or ramps. Providing access to public areas such as restrooms, voting booths, and government offices. Implication for Education and Learning: - Students with disabilities show characteristic patterns of behavior that can affect their learning and development. Special educators should recognize. Students with learning disabilities may show inconsistent or poor academic performance and may be disruptive to other students in the classroom. - They may have difficulty working independently and may give up easily when challenged. Special educators can support these students by teaching strategies to organize their work schedule, using differentiated instruction, and providing frequent assessment and feedback regarding progress. Students with communication disorders may be reluctant to participate in class discussions and writing task. - They may withdraw from large-group activities or social interactions during free- play periods. Special educators can support these students by providing assessments that reduce writing or speaking (e.g., multiple choice tests), scaffolded activities for writing and reading, and small-group instructional activities. Students with emotional or behavioral impairments may be frequently off task, refuse to follow directions, or engage in inappropriate behavior or language. - They may fight with peers or may be socially withdrawn. Special educators can support these students by teaching social skills, including conflict-resolution strategies, and creating opportunities for the students to make positive contributions to the group. Students with ADHD without hyperactivity may be inattentive, forgetful, or withdrawn while students with ADHD with hyperactivity may be restless, easily distracted, impulsive, and talkative. - In both cases, students' work is typically incomplete or disorganized, and their

motivation is often low. Special educators can support these students by structuring the environment and instructional tasks to minimize disruptions. They can help students set goals and develop prompts and cues that help keep them on task. Students with intellectual disabilities may engage in distracting or inappropriate classroom behaviors. - They may lack motivation and be reluctant to try new activities. Special educators can help students learn self-regulatory skills and can provide opportunities for adaptive and community-based activities that are relevant to the students. Students may need frequent repetition of new skills and opportunities to generalize new skills to different situations. Students with severe and multiple disabilities may have limited functional skills and may not be able to read, write, or communicate effectively. - They may be unresponsive in class. Special educators can identify appropriate assistive technology and can help students learn to communicate. Students with traumatic brain injuries may act out in class or may show anxiety or depression - They may have trouble remembering and processing information and may seem confused when given instructions. Special educators can teach new problem-solving strategies and plan structured outlines and rubrics that describe curricular plans and assignments over a long period of time. They may need to slow the pace and instructions. Students may tire easily and need modifications. They may have difficulty with social skills and impulsive behaviors. Students with autism spectrum disorders may be inattentive, may learn slowly, or may be withdrawn with peers. - Some may exhibit self-injurious behaviors (e.g., head banging) or may become aggressive toward others when there is a change in the daily routine. Special educators can teach social skills and communication skills. Positive behavioral supports are particularly effective with these students. Unique Medical Needs and Possible Effects of Medications. - Many students with disabilities come to school with unique medial needs that affect their performance and ability in the classroom. Often these needs result in numerous absences from school. In some cases, they may have symptoms that arise in class and should be monitored by a teacher. In other cases, they require special medications or health procedures during the day. Students with limited mobility or paralysis may have trouble controlling their bladders or bowels. - These students may require daily catherization from a trained school staff member; many can learn safe techniques for self-care. Students with cerebral palsy or epilepsy may develop seizures, resulting in uncontrolled movement, loss or altered state of consciousness, or sudden change in muscle tone. - If a student experiences a tonic-clonic seizure, which can include vomiting or cessation of breathing, special educators should seek medical assistance if seizures are long-lasting or rapidly repeated. For less severe seizures, special educators should reassure the student and

Advantages of formal assessments - Formal assessments have associated data regarding their reliability and validity. Teacher can use one assessment measure to gather the same information from all students and can thus screen a large number of students at one time. Limitation of formal assessments - Usually take instructional time to administer. If standardized assessments are used, special education teachers must be sure that they are appropriate and/or adapted for use with their students. Assessments must be administered by staff whoa re trained to do so. Informal assessments - Less structured, nonstandardized methods of evaluating a student's progress, such as teacher-made quizzes and test, observations and interviews. Informal assessment strategies include: - Asking students direct questions to see if they understand the material presented in a lesson. Conducting a curriculum-based assessment to measure a student's progress with the curriculum. Observing young children during play. Observing students to see if they are performing skills properly, following safety procedures, or staying on task. Advantages of informal assessments - Can be used flexibly and can be tailored to a particular student. Can be integrated into classroom lessons. Teachers can provide quick corrective feedback and adjust instruction as needed. Teachers can create assessments that are directly linked to curriculum and instruction. Disadvantages of informal assessments - Can be subject to bias. For example. teachers may have expectations for what they expect to see and may interpret student behaviors based on those expectations. Offers limited comparative data. Takes time to prepare. Criterion-Referenced Assessments vs Norm-referenced assessments. - Designed to provide information about whether students have mastered particular educational objectives. Each student is scored against criterion- how much of the content or how many of the goals has the student met? Scores on norm-referenced assessments are determined by comparing a student's performance with the performance of others. Formative vs Summative Evaluations - Teachers use formative evaluations to answer the questions, "what are the students learning? What do the students know or what skills are they demonstrating right now?" Formative assessments - Involving frequent assessment of student progress in learning the objectives that make up the curriculum in which a student is participating. Class discussions and homework assignments can also be used as formative assessments. One important reason that special education teachers use formative assessment is to monitor students' progress in order to adjust instruction and interventions as needed.

Summative Evaluation - When teachers want an overall summary of what students have learned, such as at the end of an instructional unity, they use summative evaluation. Final exams are summative assessments; so are high-stakes achievement test. As with all assessments, it is critical that any measure design for summative assessment adhere closely to the learning objectives. Assessment Methods - Effective assessments align with the learning objectives, and certain kinds of assessments fit best with certain lessons or assignments. Written test may be the most commonly used assessment measures in a general education classroom, but alternative assessment approaches are often more effective for evaluating students with disabilities. Observations - Assessments are typically records of behaviors but can also involve observation of the environment (e.g., ecological assessments). Highly structured and require training to a level of high inter - rater reliability, or they may be informal observational notes by a teacher, parent/guardian, or other member of student's IEP team. Achievement and aptitude tests - Achievement test are designed to measure academic progress-what students have learned. Aptitude test are designed to predict academic success. Most commonly standardized test. Standardized procedures include giving all students the same amount of time, having students take the test in the same room, and giving students the same instructions before beginning. Rating scales - Is an instrument that requires an observer to evaluate a student's behavior using an ordinal scale (e.g., never, sometimes, always). Are structured and may be standardized so that ratings can be compared to a norm reference sample or a criterion. The evaluations are based on raters' subjective observations, and different raters do not always interpret the scales or rate behaviors int eh same way (e.g., one rater may score a behavior exhibited three times each week as occurring sometimes and another may interpret the behavior as often). Portfolio assessments - Are collections of a student's work systematically collected over an extended time period. Includes many kinds of items, such as writing samples, projects, photographs, audiotapes, or videotapes. Performance assessments - Best used for assessment of procedural knowledge (e.g., skills). Well suited for evaluating motor skills and adaptive skills (e.g., ability to take public transportation from home to a work environment). Teacher can observe how students perform a particular skill, such as whether they use one or two hands to bounce a ball or whether they accurately balance a checkbook. Curriculum-based measruement - CBM refers to an assessment method in which teachers regularly evaluate student performance on a particular skill (e.g., reading comprehension, spelling, and math). Typically, the student is tested weekly on a small selection of material from the general education curriculum.

students with disabilities, and effective strategies for selecting and implementing curricula and technologies for students with disabilities. Prereferral - General education teacher often provide support and interventions for students who are falling behind their peers academically or socially in the general education classroom. Helps reduce the number of referrals of students who are ultimately not eligible for special education. Prereferral interventions are conducted by a multidisciplinary team usually composed of professionals such as special education teachers and specialists who collaborate with a presenting teacher. Response to interventions (RTI) - Is a schoolwide instructional model for preventing learning or behavioral difficulties and provides a framework for monitoring the progress of all students, particularly those with difficulties. Provides interventions within multi-tiered levels of instructions. Tier 1 - General education teachers provide evidence-based instruction or behavioral support to all students in the classroom. Tier 2 - Interventions supplement the core curriculum taught or support it in the classroom as part of the general education program. End of a fixed duration (e.g., 12 weeks), The team examines the data to answer the following questions: - Is the student making good progress and should he or she return to Tier 1-only instructions? Is the student making some progress, but not enough to move to Tier 1? Should he or she continue in Tier 2? Is the student making very little progress, thereby requiring him or her to be moved to Tier 3, the tertiary level with intensive curricular interventions? Tier 3 - Intervention appear to meet ineffective to meet the student's needs (i.e., do not result in improved student behavior or increased achievement) the team uses this information as the basis for a referral to a multidisciplinary team for a complete, formal individualized evaluation. This referral details concerns regarding the student's academic or behavioral performance in school. Steps in conducting an evaluation: - First step in conducting an evaluation is to review the existing data from the parents/guardians, classroom teachers, and any prereferral interventions. Federal law mandates that comprehensive individual evaluation involve multiple sources of information, including a review of student records, informal observations, and results of formal assessment instruments. The evaluation team must then determine whether additional data are needed to identify whether the student has a disability that requires special education and, if so make relevant education decisions. Assessment Involve - Assessment generally involves gathering information about a student's strengths and needs in all areas of suspected disability. Often evaluations for special education eligibility include individualized intelligence test, individualized achievement test, curriculum-

based assessments, rating scales, direct observations, ecological assessments, portfolio assessments, and/or interviews. Assessment procedures must be free of cultural bias, and the student's performance must be evaluated in a way that takes into account all areas of suspected disability. When scheduling and conducting the IEP meeting, the school staff must: - Contact the participants, including the parents/guardians. Notify parents/guardians early enough to make sure they have an opportunity to attend. Schedule the meeting at a time and place mutually agreeable to parents/guardians and the school. Tell the parents/guardians the purpose, time, and location of the meeting. Federal law - Mandates that students with disabilities must be reevaluated at least every three years. IDEA Amendments - States that data for triennial evaluation are collected only in the areas that the IEP team members decide they need in order to determine continued eligibility and the student's current educational needs. The student must be reevaluated more often if conditions warrant or if the student's parents or an educator request and updated evaluation. The use of Assessments to inform decision making - The comprehensive evaluation provides the IEP team members with assessment data used to determine a student's eligibility for special education services and, if so, the types of environment and services that will vest meet the student's strengths and needs. At the eligibility meeting, the special education teacher might discuss the results of formal and informal tests with the parents/guardians and other professionals. When the IEP team is determining program and placement decisions, they discuss assessment results in the contest of the: - Students strengths. Parents'/guardians' concern and ideas for enhancing their child's education. Results of recent evaluations or reevaluations. Student's performance on state and district-wide tests. Special factors to be considered (as defined in the next sections). Supports the student needs to advance toward the annual goals. Be involved in and progress in the general curriculum. Formal assessments - Academic achievement and diagnostic test can be used to inform eligibility and placement decisions and to develop goals for specialized instruction. Results from these assessments are most useful to teachers, parents/guardians, and other members of the IEP team when presented in meaningful terms with specific recommendations for instructional methods and strategies to improve the student's academic and/or behavioral performance. Baseline data from informal assessments - Curriculum-based measurement, are also necessary to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention on a student's learning skills. Baseline data should be collected for a long enough period of time for a pattern to emerge. During the intervention sessions, data should be collected for a long enough period of time to see the effects of the intervention on a graph.

Special Factors for consideration: when developing a student's IEP, the IEP team must together consider the following factors, among others. - The student's strengths. Any parental concerns. Data from recent evaluations of the student. Whether behavioral interventions and supports are necessary. How the language needs of a student with limited English proficiency are related to the IEP. Whether the student needs assistive technology devices and services. What the language and communication needs are for a student who is deaf or hard of hearing. IEP Components - According to the IDEA, IEPs for students age 16 and older must also include information on how the student's transition from school to adult life will be supported. Some states mandate that transition planning occur earlier in a student's school career. An individualized transition plan specifies post-school outcomes and goals in four major areas: employment, postsecondary education/training, residence, and recreation/leisure. The transition plan must reflect each student's individualized strengths, preferences, and interests. A statement of the student's present levels of academic achievement and functional performance - This statement should specify how the student's disability affects the student's involvement and progress in the general education curriculum and classroom activities. A statement of measurable annual goals, including academic and fictional goals that enable the students to be involved in and making progress in the general education curriculum. - If a student's behavior impedes his or her learning, or the learning of others, the IEP should include a behavioral intervention plan. Implementing the IEP - Must be implemented as written, for legal and ethical reasons. Everyone involved in implementing the IEP must have access to the document and must be clear on individual responsibilities for carrying out the IEP. Requires teamwork, communication, and monitoring, and thus the IEP team should consider and make arrangements to overcome any foreseeable obstacles to IEP implementation and to plan how providers with collaborate and how communication between home and school will be conducted. Parents/guardians are encouraged to fully participate in shared decision making, support agreed-on IEP goals, and provide meaningful feedback to teachers regarding their student's performance at school and in the home environment. - In the case of behavioral intervention plans, parents/guardians can provide reinforcement at home for student's behavior at school. In the general education classroom, the general education teacher is responsible for implementing the IEP within the curriculum taught, and providing prescribe accommodations that allow for the student to be able to access and make progress toward his or her individual IEP goals. - Th general education teacher might also share in the responsibility of collecting informal assessment data (e.g., curriculum-based measurements, portfolios, performance assessments) used to help monitor the student's progress toward his or her goals. The special education teacher is responsible for providing direct assistance to the general education teacher regarding the learning and behavioral needs of students with IEPs - The

assistance might be in the form of a consultative or a co-teaching approach. In consultation, the special education teacher shares resources, instructional materials, and teaching strategies with the general education teacher in supporting student's learning and behavior needs. In co=teaching arrangements, both general and special education teachers might work with all students in the general education class. However, the special education teacher would be directly responsible for implementing specialized instruction for students with IEPs, and making sure they are progressing toward their individual goals. Other educational placements for students with IEPs that are less in inclusive settings than the general education class. - Such as the resource room for part of the school day, the special education classroom for most of the school day, a separate school setting (e.g., a day school) for at least one-half of the school day, and residential schools, necessitate expanding the role of the special education teacher for the implementation of the IEP in terms of providing instruction and monitoring student progress. Review and revising the IEP - Federal law mandates that the IEP team must review a student's IEP at least once a year. The purpose of this review is to evaluate the student's progress in meeting the annual goals and to revise the IEP if necessary. The parents/guardians or the school need not wait for the annual review, however and can call an IEP meeting to revise the student's IEP if needed. Placement Options - When an IEP team is deciding on how best to support students with disabilities, one of the crucial decisions is the program placement or set of services, and the type of environment where those services will be delivered. Federal law mandates that students with disabilities have a right to be educated in the least restrictive environment (LRE). Specifically, to the maximum extent appropriate, students with disabilities must be educated with students who do not have disabilities. Supplementary aids and services include: - Program and/or curriculum modifications that are (1) different from those usually made for typical students, and (2) necessary to reduce adverse effects of the disability on student learning and educational performance. Behavioral Intervention Plan (BIP) student - Strategies for teaching alternative behaviors to replace inappropriate behaviors, reinforcements for appropriate behaviors, changes to the environment to increase the probability that the student will exhibit appropriate behaviors, and consequences for instances of problem behaviors. Also including specific behavior goals and data collection system to measure the effectiveness of interventions. Curricular Planning - Special education teachers must determine how to provide students with disabilities access to the general curriculum. Some students also require specialized curricula to address their needs in the social-emotional, behavioral, sensory, physical, communicative, and cognitive domains.

Federal law mandates that school districts provide assistive technology to students with disabilities when it supports their access to curriculum, and all IEP teams must describe necessary assistive technology. - IEP teams must also consider whether the use of assistive technology must be supported and, if so, how that support will be made available. Assistive technology devices must be provided to the student a no cost to the parents/guardians. Competency 5 - Requires an understanding of and ability to apply strategies for making learning environments more appropriate and supportive for students with disabilities. Establishing Rapport - A teacher's attitude toward students and teaching can strongly influence student with disabilities. Teachers, who consistently treat all students respectfully, maintain high expectations for all students, employ equitable instructional practices, get to know each student as an individual, and recognize cultural differences are likely to have a positive effect on their students, who internalize and display similar beliefs and behaviors. Establishing rapport involves establishing trust and ultimately and bond between the teacher and the students. Strategies for establishing a positive rapport with students include: - Learning students' names (preferred names) quickly. Greeting students positively as they enter the classroom and saying goodbye at the end of the day or class. Showing enthusiasm when speaking with students individually or in group settings. Establishing eye contact, using open arm gestures, and smiling. Classroom Planning and Management - Special education teachers face particular challenges when it comes to classroom planning and management. Many special education teachers work with students whose disabilities require that the classroom environment and schedule be more structured than would be necessary in a classroom for students without disabilities. Physical environment - Needs to be arranged so that all students can move freely and have access to materials. Individual desks should be spaced widely enough apart in order to accommodate a wheel chair or a student who uses crutches or leg braces. Backpacks and book bags should be placed in designated spaces so that there is more room to navigate within the classroom. Creating a class schedule - A special education teacher should be attentive to the nature of students' disabilities. Many students with autism spectrum disorder become upset by changes in the environment or changes in the daily routine. The teacher can create daily visual schedule showing the daily activities in sequence. To minimize disruption and ensure smooth transitions between activities. - Teachers can use positive reinforcement for appropriate behaviors when changing workbooks and instructional materials at students' desks, selecting partners to work with and move into cooperative learning groups. Teachers can count down or time students during transition periods and reward the individuals or groups who can make the transition fastest and in silence.

Classroom Climate - Is particularly important, whether the classroom is an inclusive class, a resource room, or a special education class. To create a feeling of belonging, teachers can give students an active role play in the classroom environment; this strategy also promotes students' sense of responsibility and ownership. In an inclusive classroom - It is important that students without disabilities are aware of the skills and strengths of those students who have special needs. The successful inclusion teacher will provide opportunities for the students with disabilities to demonstrate his or her skills to others. Clear, consistent behavioral expectations and procedures - Are especially important when working with students who have disabilities. Students who are challenged with impulse control requires explicit instruction in behavior expectations and often need verbal reinforcement of these rules and procedures several times a day. Some effective strategies include: - Creating a behavior reward chart based on reinforcement of positive behaviors. Discussing with the student strategies for making better choices. Modeling good behaviors and explicitly demonstrating how to behave appropriately. If negative consequences are used for managing behaviors, teachers can establish rules that set limits, for example: - Include students in rule making: acknowledge students' feeling about rules. Students are a part of the classroom community, and helping them in the decision- making process for rules making fosters a positive climate for all. Explain rules and routines clearly: explicitly teach rules and routines to students in the first few weeks of school. Provide reasons for the rules, have as few rules as possible. Fostering students' independence - Is a delicate balance between being too supportive and stunting the students' growth and giving students responsibilities they are not yet able to handle. Strategies for fostering students' independence include: - Encouraging self-reliance and praising students for problem solving, being creative, and tackling tasks, rather than reserving praise for a successful outcome. Giving students developmentally appropriate choices with multiple acceptable options: students thus develop feeling of control over their own learning. Maintaining students' attention - The first step is to provide properly paced, developmentally appropriate instruction. Special educators can also maintain student attention by - Modifying assignments if necessary to ensure that they are developmentally appropriate. Providing scaffolding and structure to help students stay on task. Teaching self-regulation strategies. Providing frequent and immediate feedback.

Facilitating integration - Working with general education teachers to minimize background noise in the classroom, especially for students with ADHD or hearing loss. Providing preferential seating, especially for students with sensory disorders. Crisis prevention and intervention - Creating the optimal learning environment starts with positive behavioral supports. Special education teachers can best keep students safe by - Setting up the classroom so that they can easily monitor the entire room: for example, ensure that the teacher can see all students as she scans the room periodically. Eliminating distractions: for example, students with attention deficit disorders are seated next to an able student who models appropriate study skills and organizational skills. To help prevent a crisis, teachers should - Be aware of antecedent or escalating behaviors that start small, such as pencil tapping, twitching leg movements, facial expressions or changes in breathing patterns. Competency 6 - Special education teachers must be familiar with empirically based methods and strategies that are most appropriate and most effective for students with special needs. Requires examinees to be familiar with this content. Effective Instructional Practices for Reading and Writing - Effective reading and writing instruction occurs over years and changes with the developmental and skill levels of students. Special education teachers have the responsibility to identify the individual needs of students and then determine the type of instruction they need. Reading instruction - The most reliable effective approach for reading is systematic and explicit instruction, in which skills and concepts are taught in a strategic sequence that progresses as students build skills. To draw students' important features or aspect of a concept, teachers provide an organizational framework and model each skill. To provide effective reading instruction, special education teachers must provide explicit, intensive, and systematic instruction in - 1. Phonemic awareness

2. Phonics
3. Vocabulary
4. Fluency
5. Reading comprehension To help students develop phonemic awareness, special education teachers can - Explain what rhyme is through example of words that share same ending sounds and have students practice to become proficient in rhyming words: Teachers can conduct activities in which the students have to provide rhyming words (e.g., "He went to the mall to by a __").

To provide effective phonics instruction, special education teachers can - Present examples of sound-symbol relations for a small group of letters and provide sufficient practice decoding specific word patterns in reading passages. It is most effective when teachers begin with simple VC (e.g., in) and CVCX (e.g., pet) words, and then move to more complex sound patterns. To help students learn vocabulary, special education teachers can - Provide activities in which students practice high-frequency words to recognize the pronunciation and meaning of the words automatically. Teachers should select vocabulary words based on their usefulness in language and importance to comprehension. To help students become more fluent readers, teachers can - Model fluent reading by reading aloud to students. Have student practice reading aloud easy books to younger children. This technique is also called buddy reading. To provide effective instruction in reading comprehension, teachers can - Preteach key vocabulary and concepts before asking students to read text. Reach student to use word order and context clues to identify word meaning. Writing Instruction - Effective instructional strategies for teaching writing to students with disabilities are systematic, explicit, sequential, and scaffolded. Special education teachers teach students the use of grammatical rules and conventions of the English language (e.g., subject- verb agreement, sentence structure, capitalization, punctuation) and strategies for improving written expression (e.g., planning, organizing, editing, revising). To help students learn written expression skills, special education teachers can - Provide activities for students to use action verbs (e.g., ran, drove, slept); adverbs (e.g., ran fast, drove slowly, slept soundly); and adjectives (beautiful scene, delicious meal, enthusiastic teacher) as they write. To help students learn spelling of words, special education teachers can - Provide activities in which students spell words they can read. Provide systematic, explicit instruction in spelling and orthography (e.g., high-frequency words, spelling patterns. orthographic guidelines, syllable patterns, structural analysis). Effective instructional practices for mathematics - Mathematics has a logical and sequential structure that progresses from simple to more complex tasks. The most reliable effective approach for teaching mathematics is systematic instruction in specific skills, review of prior knowledge skills, and explicit instruction in which skills and concepts are taught in a strategic sequence that progresses from basic concepts (e.g., number sense) to calculation to problem solving, reasoning, estimation, and to other advanced mathematical concepts. To help students learn mathematical concepts and skills, special educators can - Use explicit and direct instruction. Use the teaching strategy of demonstration-prompt-practice. Use the