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THE PREHISTORY OF AVIATION

BY BERTHOLD LAUFER

THE desire^ to^ fly^ is^ as^ old^ as^ mankind^ ;^ in^ all^ ages^ man's^ imag-

ination has been stirred by the sight of flying birds and seized

by the ambition to sail upon the wind like one of them. There is a

long record of ventures, experiments and failures, and the romance

of flying still remains one of the most fascinating in the historv of

mankind.

It is to man's ingrained love for the fabulous, for the wondrous

and extraordinary, to which we are indebted for the preservation of

ancient records of flight. The prehistory of mechanical science is

shrouded in mystery because primitive man (^) was unable (^) to render

an intelligent account of it. Just as natural phenomena were re-

garded by him as wonders wrought by supernatural agencies, so

any mechanical devices were interpreted as witchcraft. Every in-

vestigator and skilled artificer of prehistoric and early historic days

has gone down in history as an enchanter or wizard who had made

a pact with demoniacal powers. Aiany of the so-called magicians

were simply^ clever mechanics whose work was beyond the com-

prehension of their contemporaries and whose achievements were

so singular and awe-inspiring that they were believed to have been

inspired by supernatural forces'. This is the reason that those who

made attempts at aerial flights were so often associated with magic

and necromantic art and why in our middle ages solely (^) witches and

devils were endowed with the faculty of flying.

Ancient traditions regarding mechanical wonders must, there-

fore, be divested of their legendary garb and exposed in their his-

torical nucleus, (^) but we owe to them the preservation of many re-

Extract from Publication 253, Volume XVIII, No. 1, Anthropological

Series, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.

494 THE OPEN COURT

cords, for the dry and bare bones of historical events are apt to be

relegated to the waste basket.

The imaginative faculty of the human mind does not conceive

things that have no reality in existence. The product of our im-

agination is alw^ays elicited by something that we have at least reason

to believe exists. The question is : if these myths exist, how did they

arise, and what germ of fact lies behind them.

In the same manner that astrology was the precursor of astron-

omy and alchemy evolved into the science of chemistry, so there is an abundance of lore which godfathers the history of aviation. To

distinguish that primeval stage from the present accomplished fact

we will simply speak of it^ as the prehistory of aviation and we will

show that our modern progress is not due solely to the efforts of the

present generation.

The Romance of^ Flying^ in^ China

At the threshold of the earliest recorded history of China an

imperial flyer^ appears, the emperor Shun who lived in the third

millennium before our era^ ; and he^ is^ not^ only^ the^ first^ flyer^ recorded

in history but also the very first who made a successful descent in a parachute.

Shun's early life teemed with thrilling^ adventures.^ His^ mother

died when he was quite young, and his father, Ku Sou, took a second wife^ by whom^ he^ had^ a^ son.^ He^ grew^ very^ fond^ of^ this

son and graduallv conceived a dislike^ for^ Shun^ which^ resulted^ in

several conspiracies against the poor youngster's life.^ In^ spite of

ibis. howe\ er, Shun continued in exemplary conduct towards his

father and^ step-mother.^ His^ filial^ piety^ attracted^ the^ attention^ of

the wise and worthy emperor,^ Yao.^ Yao^ had^ two^ daughters^ who^ in-

structed Shun in the art of flying like a bird. In the commentary

to the annals of the Bamboo Books, Shun is described as a

flyer. Se-ma^ Ts'ien^ has^ preserved^ the^ following^ tradition.^ "Ku

Sou bade his son. Shun, build^ a granary^ and^ ascend^ it,^ and^ there-

upon set the structure on fire. Shun who stood on top of the tower,

spread out two large reed hats which he used as a parachute in

making his descent and landed on the ground unscathed." Consider-

ing the fact that Chinese^ reed hats^ are^ umbrella-shaped,^ circular

IBladud, the legendary tenth^ king^ of^ Britain,^ is^ said^ to^ have^ made^ wings

of feathers by means of which he attempted^ an^ aerial^ flight^ which^ resulted in his death^ in^852 B.^ C.

THE PREHISTORY^ OF^ AVIATION^495

and very large^ (two^ to^ three^ feet^ in^ diameter)^ this^ feat^ wonld^ not

seem impossible.- Shim^ later^ married^ the^ two^ sisters,^ and^ their

father gave him a share in the government.

Winged flight, however, seldom appears as a real^ attempt.^ The

emperor Shun^ is^ practically^ the^ sole^ example^ and^ seems^ to^ have

found few imitators.

Chinese writers fable about a country^ of^ flying^ folk.^ Yii^ ]\Iin,

located on^ an^ island^ in^ the^ southeastern^ ocean,^ a^ people^ with^ long

jaws, bird-beaks, red eyes and white^ heads,^ covered^ with^ hair^ and

feathers resembling human beings, but born^ from^ eggs.

The conception of bird-men is quite familiar to Chinese mytho-

logy and is often^ represented^ in^ Chinese^ art.^ I^ei^ Kung,^ the^ god

of thunder and lightning, has wings^ attached^ to^ his^ shoulders

(usually those of a bat) by means of which he flies to wherever he

wishes to produce a thunderstorm.

The first description of an^ air^ journey is found in^ a^ poem^ by

Kii Yiian, w^ho, having lost his position as statesman by the in-

trigues of his^ rivals,^ found^ solace^ from^ his^ disgrace^ by^ writing.^ In

his poem, he surveys the earth to its^ four^ extreme^ points,^ travels

all over the sky, then descends again in a flying chariot drawn

by dragons.

This idea is not alien to Chinese^ art. An^ aerial^ contest^ between

a dragon chariot and winged beings astride scaly and horned dra-

gons is represented on a gravestone of the Han period (second

century A.D.)

Huang Ti, one of the ancient legendary emperors, attained im-

mortality by mounting a long-bearded dragon, strong enough to

transport his^ wives also and ministers—more^ than seventy persons. The officials of lower rank who were not able to find a seat on

the dragon's back clung to the hairs of the dragon's beard, like

strap hangers in the street cars. These, however, gave way, and

the passengers were plunged to the ground, and also dropped the

emperor's bow. The multitude of spectators reverentially watched

the apotheosis and when Huang Ti had reached his destination, (^) they

picked up the hairs and^ his^ bow.

When the imagination of a nation is filled with the romance

of air, when the very air is populated with winged genii and flying

chariots, and when^ such^ subjects^ are^ glorified by art, it is the logi-

-Leonardo da Vinci was the first in our midst (^) to conceive the idea of a parachute.

496 THE OPEN COURT

AERIAL CONTEST OF DRAGON-CHARIOT AND DRAGON-RIDERS

Stone Bas-relief of Han Period, A.D. 147. Shan-tung, China

cal step that imagination^ leads^ one^ or another to attempt the con-

struction of some kind of an airship.

The history of the ancient Emperors, the Ti zvang shi ki, con-

tains the following^ notice: "Ki-kung-shi^ was able to make^ a flying

chariot which, driven by a fair wind, traveled a great distance. At

the time of the emperor Ch'eng T'ang the west wind blew Ki-kung-

shi's chariot as far as Yli-chou. The emperor ordered this chariot

to be destroyed so that it should not become known to the people.

Ten years later, when the east wind blew, the emperor caused an-

other chariot to be built by Ki-kung and sent him back in it."

The term "flying chariot" (fci ch'o) used in this passage is

now current in China to designate an aeroplane.

Another account ascribes this invention to the Ki-kimg nation,

who are one-armed, three-eyed hermaphrodites. Most likely two

distinct legends have here become contaminated.

A wood engraving of Ki-kung's chariot of (^) comparatively re-

cent origin reconstructed from the slender fabric of the ancient

tradition is reproduced here. The Chinese draughtsman is decided-

ly wrong about producing a two-wheeled chariot as the sole in-

dication of motive power given in the account itself is the wind.

In ancient China only two devices were known to set a vehicle in

motion, namely, a sail and a kite. A sail alone cannot lift (^) a vehicle

into the air, but this can be accomplished by several powerful kites.

Therefore, Ki-kung's chariot was probably^ built^ on the aerostatic

principle, being driven by a combination^ of sails^ and kites.

Possibly the chariot was similar^ to^ the aerial boat designed by

Francesco Lana which was to be lifted by four copper globes from

THE PREHISTORY OF AVIATIOX^497

AERIAL CONTEST OF DRAGON-CHARIOT AND DRAGON-RIDERS

which all the air had heen extracted. The heat is then propelled by

oars and sails.

Kung-shu Tse, a contemporary of Confucius, also called Lu

Pan, is said to have carved a magpie from bamboo and wood ; when

completed he caused it to fly, and only^ after^ three^ days^ did^ it^ come

down to earth. According to another tradition, Kung-shu made an

ascent on a wooden kite in order to spy on a city which he desired

to (^) capture. This invention (^) is sometimes ascribed to Mo Ti, and a

greal deal of confusion surrounds the accounts. As early as the

first century of our era, real knowledge of this contrivance was

lost.

This wooden bird and its affinity, the dove of Archytas, meet

with a curious parallel in the west. The astronomer, Regiomontanus,

who (^) lived in (^) Nurenberg in (^) the 15th century is said to have con-

structed an eagle which he sent out high in the air to meet the em-

peror and accompanied him to the citv gates. Considering the fact that

such similar contrivances are reported from different parts of the

world at widely varying times we cannot help concluding that a

grain of truth must underlie these accounts, even though we grant

that they are exaggerated. Perhaps Kung-shu's bird was a glider,

or perhaps it was attached to or raised by a kite.

Starting from realistic means of flight, Chinese eff'orts devel-

oped into mysticism and magic. In the second century B. C. al-

chemistic lore began to infiltrate from the west. The notion of flight

was a link^ of paramount importance in the chain of mystic dreams

which held the people enthralled for many centuries. Alchemists

sought the elixir of life, people ascended to heaven upon drinking

concoctions, or^ upon the back of cranes, of ducks or tigers.

In this later history two singular ideas come to the fore ; levi-

tation bv means of starvation and bv means of remedies taken in-

498 THE^ OPEN^ COURT

ternally — live on air to conquer the air.^ These doctrines^ and^ prac-

tices of Taoism are partially traceable to India.

T'ao Hung-king, a distinguished physician and adept in the

mysteries of Taoism, compounded^ a^ "flying^ elixir"^ of^ gold,^ cinna-

bar, azurite and sulphur. It was said to have the color^ of^ hoar

frost and snow and to have a bitter taste. When swallowed it

produced levitation^ of^ the^ body.^ It^ is^ the^ only^ example^ in^ the^ his-

tory of the world of teaching to fly by means of medicine taken^ in-

ternally.

Kites as Precursors to Aeroplanes

Kites were first invented and put to a practical test in ancient

China. The toy we used to fly in our boyhood days is but a poor de-

generate orphan compared to the Chinese kites which^ are^ won-

ders of technique and art. The ordinary Chinese kites are made of

a light^ framew^ork^ of^ bamboo^ over^ which^ is^ spread^ a^ sheet^ of

strong paper, painted in^ brilliant hues with^ human^ or animal^ fig-

ures. The figures are designed for a distant vista and may seem,

at a close proximity, distorted, but from a distance appear most

beautiful, and waving and soaring as the kite moves on like^ a real

bird. They are maintained by a long tough cord wound over a reel

which is held in the hand and is continually turned as the paper

plane rises or falls. The most complicated one of these is the cen-

tipede kite. One in the American Natural History Museum in New

York measures 40 ft. in length. Mechanically kites are constructed

on the principle underlying the behavior of a soaring bird, which

performs its movements with peculiar warped and curved surfaces.

The ninth day of the ninth month in the autumn is devoted to

the festival called Ch"ung-yang. Friends join for a picnic in the

hills and set kites adrift. This also is the day for holding kite con-

tests. The cord near the kite is stifl:'ened with cut glass. The kite-

flyer manoeuvres to get his kite to windward of that of his rival,

allows his cord to drift against that of his rival, and by a sudden

jerk cuts it through, so that the hostile kite is brought down.

A musical kite was invented in the tenth century by Li Ye who

fastened a bamboo flute to the kite's head. Sometimes two or three

flutes are attached one above the other, more frequently, however,

a musical bow made of light willow-wood or bamboo, and strung

with a silken cord is attached to the kites.

Tin-: PRKIIISTdRY^ OF^ AVIATIOX^499

KAI KAWUS^ FLIGHT^ TO^ HEAVEN

From a Persian Illustrated Alanuscript^ of^ the^ Shahnameh,^ Dated^ 1587-

Courtesy of Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Courtesy of Field Museum

500 THE OPEN COURT

Kites were originally used for military signaling. The idea that

a kite drives away bad spirits is of local and recent development

—

found more in Korea than in China and bears no relation to the

origin of kites, and cannot be clearly traced. They seem not to have

existed in times of early antiquity, and therefore they are not^ men-

tioned in the treatise on the art of war by Sun Wu in the 6th

century B. (^) C.

Kung-shu's wooden bird was "not a flying kite. The earliest no-

tion of this looms up in the life of Han Sin who died in 196 B. C, one of the three heroes who assisted Lu Pang in ascending the throne as the first emperor of the Han dynasty. He wanted to dig

a tunnel to the palace and in order to measure the distance he is

said to have flown a kite. Some say he measured the cord, others

say that he ascended the kite, but it is most probable that he intro-

duced kites into warfare using them in trigonometrical calculations

of the distance from the hostile army. The story is however

not well authenticated for it appears only in comparatively late

sources and Han Sin's kite is said to have been made of paper, while

paper was invented only 300 years later.

Chinese authors are wont to speak of paper kites. Paper was

invented in A. D. 105. Ever since paper has come into use, kites

have been made of this material, and no other material has been

used for them. But the^ framework^ might^ have been covered by

some other light material, silk or hemp. Chinese records, however,

are reticent on this point.

From China (^) knowledge of kites was diffused (^) to all other na-

tions of Eastern Asia, that experienced the influence of Chinese

civilization such as Korea, Japan, and nearby countries. In some

parts of Indonesia, kites are put to the practical purpose of catch-

ing fish. Kites were introduced into India through 'Malay or Chinese

immigrants. Kite-flying is a popular amusement in the spring and

contests are held for high stakes.

In .Siam, kite flying is a state ceremony, as well as a public fes-

tivity connected with agriculture and the northeast monsoon.

All data at our disposal goes to prove that the kite spread from

the far east westward, to the near east and finally to Europe and

makes its debut there as a Chinese contrivance.

In European literature kites are first described by the Italian

Giovanni Batista in his book on natural magic, and the Jesuit Athan-

THE PREHISTORY OF^ AVIATION^501

asiiis Kircher who also^ wrote^ a^ book^ on^ China^ which^ is^ based^ on^ in-

formation received from members^ of^ his^ order^ working^ in^ China.

Kites were flown in England as a pastime.^ In^ the^ middle^ of the^ seven-

teenth century^ they^ were^ employed^ for^ the^ purpose^ of^ letting^ off

fireworks. They were finally^ used^ in^ Europe^ by^ Alexander^ Wil-

son and in the United States by Benjamin^ Eranklin^ for^ scientific

purposes in making temperature and electrical^ experiments.^ The

classical experiment of^ Benjamin^ Franklin^ which^ identified^ lightning

with electricity is, of course, well^ known.

Both in China and Japan there are stories^ current^ about^ men

riding on kites. Athanasius^ Kircher^ mentions^ that^ in^ his^ time^ kites

were made of such dimensions that^ they^ were^ capable^ of^ lifting^ a

man.

About the year 1826, the^ principle^ of^ the^ kite^ was^ turned^ to^ a

practical purpose by George Pocock^ a^ schoolmaster^ of^ Bristol,^ who

found that by attaching several kites one beneath^ another^ they

could be elevated above^ the^ clouds.^ In^ January^ the^ following^ year

he claimed to have covered several miles^ between^ Bristol^ and^ ]\Ial-

borough at twenty miles an hour. He proposed to use^ kites^ for

shipwrecking and^ to tow^ boats,^ and^ for^ military^ purposes^ to^ elevate

a man for reconnaissances and signaling.

In 1876, Joseph Simmons claims that he was drawn into^ the

air to a height of^600 feet^ by^ means^ of^ two^ superimposed^ kites^ and

adjusting his weight by guy lines to^ the^ earth.^ Others^ have^ also

reported such success.

Laurence Hargrave, an Australian, introduced a new principle,

the cellular construction of kites. This^ type^ of^ box^ kite^ formed

the starting point of Alexander Graham Bell's researches and^ con-

struction of^ tetrahedral^ and^ triangular^ kites.^ The^ wings^ of^ the

modern biplane are closely modeled^ after^ the^ Hargrave^ box^ kite.

The man-lifting kite has developed into an aeroplane. The speed

plane of^ our^ day is^ but^ a^ first^ cousin^ to^ the^ kite.

Another Chinese apparatus^ deserves^ mention^ here^ as it^ served

as a source of inspiration to Sir George Cayley one of the great

pioneers of modern aviation. He says that his first experiments

were made with a Chinese^ aerial^ top^ which^ served^ at^ once^ to^ il-

lustrate the principle of the helicopter and air-screw. Though

but a toy a few inches long, its capacity to demonstrate certain

principles in^ aeronautics^ made^ a^ lasting^ impression^ on^ his^ youth-

ful mind.

502 the^ open^ court

The Dawn of Airships in Ancient^ India

Although the^ Aryan^ Indians^ of^ the^ Yedic^ period^ had^ numerous

aerial deities, such as the^ Gandharvas,^ elves^ "haunting^ the^ fathom-

less spaces of air," no allusion^ is^ made^ in^ the^ Rigveda^ to^ their^ man-

ner of locomotion. The Vedic gods did^ not^ fly,^ but^ preferred^ driv-

ing in^ luminous^ cars^ drawn^ by^ fleet^ horses,^ cows,^ goats^ or^ spotted

deer. Indra, the favorite^ national^ god,^ primarily^ a^ storm^ and^ thun-

der god, is borne in a golden chariot^ drawn^ by^ tawny^ chargers^ as

an eagle is borne on its wings, faster than^ thought.

A myth of^ post-Vedic^ times^ tells^ of^ quaking^ mountains^ with

wings gifted with the power^ of^ flight.^ They^ flew^ around^ like^ birds,

alighted wherever they pleased and with^ their^ incessant^ motion

made the^ earth^ unsteady.^ With^ his^ thunderbolt,^ Indra^ clipped^ their

wings and settled^ them^ permanently^ in^ their^ places^ ;^ their^ wings^ were

transformed into thunder^ clouds.

The Agvine (horsemen), the^ twin^ dieties,^ probably^ represent-

ing the dawn and the morning star, traverse^ heaven^ and^ earth^ in

a single dav, drawn in^ a^ sun-like^ chariot^ by^ horses^ or^ birds^ or

swans or eagles. OtherVedic gods,^ Surya,^ the^ sun^ god,^ Agni,^ the^ per-

sonification of the sacrificial fire, drive in^ chariots^ or^ are^ represented as birds. Pushan, who^ is^ closely^ connected^ with^ the^ sun,^ moves^ in

golden ships sailing over^ the^ aerial^ ocean.^ The^ sun^ on^ one^ hand

appears as a boat in which 'aruna.^ the^ god^ of^ the^ sky,^ navigated

the aerial^ sea,^ and^ on^ the^ other^ hand^ as^ a^ chariot^ with^ Varuna^ as^ the

charioteer. This conception^ arose^ from^ the^ experience^ of^ seeing^ the

sun set in the sea.

The Maruts, the gods of the winds, are^ described^ as^ having

volked the winds as steeds to their pole; that is, their chariot is

driven by winds.

In post-Vedic literature^ the^ Indians^ profess^ to^ have^ had^ two

distinct types of flying machines, the Garuda airship of native manu-

facture constructed on the principle of bird-flight, and the Yavana

airship ascribed to^ the^ Greeks^ whose^ manufacture^ was^ scrupulously

guarded as a secret. Whether the^ ancient^ Indians^ ever^ really^ navi-

gated the air or whether their dirigibles are fiction is irrelevant.

The main thing is they had the idea, and their ideas about aero-

Mautics were not^ worse^ or^ more^ defective^ than^ those^ of^ Europe

from the 16th century to the first^ part^ of^ the 19th century. They

saw two points clearly—that aircraft must operate on the principle of

THE PREHISTORY OF AVIATION 503

the flight of hirds and that a mechanism is required to start the ma-

chine, to keep it in midair, and to make it descend. They devoted

considerable thought^ to^ problems^ of^ the^ air^ and^ efforts^ were^ made

to construct aircraft of various types.

The Greek records are silent as to aircraft, so that we do not

know whether the Greeks really, as asserted, did supply them with

flying machines. Certainly Greek mechanists and artisans^ enjoyed

a high reputation in India, and marvelous inventions were ascribed

to them, such as marvelous automata, movable figures of beautiful

women.

The vehicle of the god A ishnu is Garuda, a celestial bird origin-

ally a solar bird. This mythological conception proved very fertile

in stimulating^ imagination^ and^ according to Indian^ stories^ led to

construction of airships, and attempts at fl} ing.

The most popular collection of Indian folk-lore contains the

story (^) of the weaver as 'ishnu. A (^) weaver became infatuated with

the king's daughter. His friend, a carpenter, made a wooden air-

ship for him in the shape of a Garuda, which was set in motion by a

switch or^ spring.^ Equipped^ with^ all^ the paraphernalia of the god,

he flew to the seventh story of the palace where the princess had

her apartment. She took him for Vishnu, and he married her ac-

cording (^) to the rites (^) of the Gandharvas (by mutual consent). To

her father's questions, she said she was the consort of a god. The

king thereupon became overbearing to his neighbors who made war upon him.^ He implored^ the^ pseudo-Mshnu for help through his daughter. He accordingly appeared above the battlefield with bow

and arrow, ready to die. But 'ishnu, not wishing his authority to

suffer among men, as it would if he allowed the weaver to die,

entered his body and scattered the enemy. After the victory the

weaver told the whole story to the king, who rewarded him and mar-

ried him to his daughter. The most interesting point to this story

is that a garuda is used to rout an enemy.

Another garuda is described in a collection of old Indian stories.

The wife of a rich man's son is stolen, and a carpenter's son, to

rescue her, builds a wooden Garuda. It is supplied with three

springs, one in front to make it go upward, on the side to make it

float smoothly along, and one beneath to make it descend.

Again reference to airships is found in a collection of stories

504 THE OPEN COURT

written during the 11th century. Vasavadatta desired to mount

an aerial^ chariot^ and visit^ the^ earth.^ The^ carpenters^ who^ were^ sum-

moned said that flying machines Were known only^ to^ the^ Greeks.

Later in the same story, Vigvila makes an aerial journey on a me-

chanical cock, but^ says that^ the^ secret^ should^ be^ revealed^ to^ no

one but a Greek. Pukvasaka, his father-in-law, commanded^ him^ to

build a flying machine, but Mcvila who had learned the secret from

the Greek artisan^ not^ daring^ to^ reveal^ it,^ fled^ with^ his^ wife^ dur-

ing the night on the cock, to the country whence^ he had^ come.^ The

artisans were flogged ; meanwhile a stranger appeared who said,

"Do not flog^ the^ artisans:^ I^ w'ill^ build^ a^ flying^ machine."^ In^ the

nick of time he producd a flying machine in^ the^ form^ of^ a^ Garuda.

When the Queen refused to mount it alone, the stranger said it

could carry the entire city. So the king and his personnel, his

wives and officials set out and circumnavigated^ the^ earth.^ On^ his

return, he did honors to the craftsman.

In a Sanskrit romance of the 7th century, a king, desirous of

marvels, was carried away,^ no^ one^ knows^ whither,^ on^ an^ aerial

car made by a Greek who had been taken prisoner. The term^ used

in this passage means "a mechanical vehicle which travels on the

surface of the^ air." As regards winged flight, only one example is known^ to me

from Indian literature. The Katha Sarit Sagara contains the fol-

lowing (^) tale: A young Brahman, having seen the prince of the Sid-

dhas flying through the air, wished to^ rival^ him,^ and fastening^ wing?

of grass to his side and continually leaping up he tried to learn to

fly. The prince^ took^ pity^ on^ the^ boy^ who^ was making^ such^ an^ earn-

est efiPort, and by means of his magic^ power^ took^ the boy^ on his

shoulder and made him one of his followers.

In Indian art, particularly in the sculpture of the Buddhists,

winged beings in^ the act of^ flying^ are^ frequently^ represented.

Among the marvelous abilities promised^ as a reward for yoga practice was "traversing the air." What has been observed as fly-

ing by modern yogins proved to be hopping close to the surface of

the ground without seemingly^ touching^ it.

More interesting, however, are^ two^ charming^ motifs of folk-

lore presented by India to the world, magic boots and the en-

chanted flying^ horse.

the prehistory of aviation 505

From Babylon and Persia to the Greeks and^ the Arabs From the^ Euphrates^ Valley^ large^ fragments^ have^ been^ recovered

of a legend of the sovereign Etana^ who,^ as^ a^ reward^ for^ having

helped a wounded eagle, is carried on his back to the^ dwelling^ of

the gods. They reach the heaven of Anu and halt at the gate of the

ecliptic. The eagle is next^ urging^ Etana^ on^ to^ the^ dwelling^ place

of Ishtar, six hours distant, but either his^ strength^ is^ exhausted

or the goddess intervenes, for a precipitous descent begins. They

fall through space three double hours^ and^ finally^ reach^ the^ ground.

The close of the story is wanting, but the purpose of the flight^ has

failed.

This is the only record of flight recorded in^ cuneiform^ litera-

ture. Although it is found in Babylon and several different cylinder

seals illustrate the legend, it is thought to be of Iranian or possibly

Aryan origin.

There is an ancient Persian tradition of especial interest which

was transmitted^ to Europe^ at an early^ date.^ In^ the^ semi-legendary

history of Iran, there w^as a king, Kai Kawus, who was easily led

astray by passion. He built seven palaces on Mt. Alburz, then he

tried to^ restrain the demons of Mazandaran,^ one^ of which^ retaliated

and sowed the seeds of discontent in his heart, so that he set his

mind on attaining supremacy in the celestial abode. He built (^) a

throne, supported and raised by four starving^ eagles. As an in-

centive for the birds to fly, four pieces of flesh were fastened to the

top of four spears planted on the sides of the throne. The flight

was of^ short duration ; the strange vehicle soon came down in a

crash and the grandees found the king unconscious in a forest.

The Iranian motif of an aerial vehicle lifted by starved eagles

was adopted by the Greek Romances of Alexander the Great which

became widely known throughout the middle ages.

Of all^ the flying^ stories of classical antiquity the one that has

left the most lasting impression and inspired the greatest number

of imitators is that of Daedalus (Cunning Worker). (^) He incurred

the wrath of king Minus and, in order to escape imprisonment,

fashioned a pair^ of artificial wings coated with wax for himself

and his son. They mounted and flew westward over the sea. Icarus,

however, disregarded his father's advice and flew too near the sun ;

the wax on his wings softened (^) and melted, and he fell headlong into the sea.

506 THE^ OPEN^ COURT

It dees not^ matter^ if the story is^ or^ is^ not^ true.^ It^ is^ the^ flight

of human imagination, the impulses and visions^ of^ a genius,^ very

often his errors, which have stimulated inventions and progress.

The Daedalus^ story^ finds^ an^ echo^ in^ the^ Germanic^ saga^ of^ Way-

land the Smith, the artificer of marvelous^ weapons.^ King^ Nidung

endeavored to keep him in his service by cutting the sinews^ of^ his

feet, thus laming him forever. Wayland forged a feather robe and

revealed his purpose to the king from the tower of the castle and

flew home to Seeland.

The most notable of the Greek gods and goddesses who flew

through space were Perseus and Hermes with winged helmet and

shoes. Fantastic conveyances^ were^ used^ on^ the^ Greek^ stage^ to^ give

the illusion of persons being lifted upward or^ descending^ from^ the

air.

Archytas, a Greek philosopher, mathematician and statesman,

who lived in Italy in^428 B.C.^ attained^ great^ skill^ as^ a^ practical

mehanician. His flying dove of wood was one^ of^ the wonders^ of

antiquity. From the accounts we have, it is not clear just what it

was. It is described as^ being^ a wooden^ figure^ balanced^ by^ a^ weight

that was suspended from a pulley. It is said^ to^ have^ soared^ in^ the

air and been put into motion by a current of air "hidden and en-

closed" (^) in its interior. Some scholars incline to the opinion that

it was an anticipation of^ the hot^ air^ balloon,^ others^ that^ it^ was^ an

aerostat or glider, for it is said that it could fly but not rise^ again after falling. It may also have been on the order of Lu Pan's

wooden kite.

Lucian. the delightful satirist and divine^ liar^ of^ the^ second^ cen-

tury of our era, tells of an air voyage where the flyer, Menippus.

goes Daedalus^ one^ better^ by^ refraining^ from^ the^ use^ of^ wax.^ He

fastened an eagle's and a vulture's^ wing^ to^ each^ side^ by straps^ with

handles for grips. Thus he essayed to fly, at first leaping^ and flap-

ping, keeping close to the ground as geese do, later becoming bold

enough to fly to Olympus, and to the moon. This story gave tht

impetus to the class of fiction^ known^ as^ "voyages^ imaginaires."

Such a voyage is described by Francis Godwin^ in his romant

"The Man in the Aloone." His hero, Gonzales was abandoned on an uninhabited island, St. Helena. He trained a flock of birds to

fly together bearing^ a^ burden.^ Then^ he^ devised^ a^ mechanism^ where-

by he could distribute his weight at the start of the flight. At first

THE PREHISTURV OF A\1ATI0N 507

THE AERIAL VOYAGE OF DOMINGO GONSALES

From F. Godwin's Man in the Moone, 1638

Courtesy of Field Museum

508 THE OPEN COURT

he experimented with a lamb, then he was himself carried aloft.

"For I hold it far more honor to have been the first flying man than

to be another Neptune that first adventured^ to^ sail^ upon^ the^ sea."

This sentiment, "to be the flying man," finds its earliest expression

here.

The Arabs, heirs to Greek philosophy,^ and^ science,^ made^ con-

siderable progress in mechanical devices. About the year 875,

an Arabian, known as the Sage of Spain, who was the first to

manufacture glass, invented a contrivance to make^ his body rise

into the air. He made wings, clothed himself with feathers and

fiew quite a distance, but as he had not considered what would

happen during his descent, he fell and injured his buttocks. He

was ignorant, the Arabic chronicler adds, that a bird falls only on

its rump, and had forgotten to make a tail for himself.

There is another story of a flying architect from the tenth cen-

tury, who erected a huge tower for King Shapur I. The king, not

wanting anyone else to profit by his genius, left him on the top of

the tower. The architect built a pair of wooden wings, fastened

them to his body, and driven by the wind, flew to a place of safety.

This story bears a remarkable resemblance to the Daedalus story.

In Constantinople, at the festivities held in honor of a visiting

Sultan, a Saracen wanted to show his skill in flying. He announced

he would fly from the^ tower^ of the hippodrome^ across^ the^ race-

course. He was clad in white garments, large and wide, braced with rods of willow-wood laid over a framework. He delayed for

a long time^ and^ the^ crowd^ became^ impatient^ ;^ but^ finally,^ when^ the

wind was favorable, he soared like a bird and seemed to fly in the

air.

Oliver of Malmesbury,^ an^ English^ astrologer^ of^ the^ eleventh

century, is said to have attached wings^ to his^ hands^ and feet and

attempted to fly ofT from a tower. He attributed his fall to the

lack of a tail. This bears a striking resemblance to the Arabic story

above mentioned.

John Damion, an Italian^ by birth^ and a physician^ at the court

of King James, claimed he could overtake an embassy to France.

He fastened wings of bird feathers on himself and hopped ofif the top of Stirling^ Castle,^ but^ he^ fell^ and^ broke^ his^ legs.^ He^ blamed

his misfortune on the fact that there were some^ chicken feathers

in his wing which showed a natural affinity to return to the barnyard.

THE PREHISTORY OF AVIATIOX 509

Giovanni Battista Danti,^ a mathematician^ of^ Perugia,^ is^ said^ to

have attempted winged flights over the lake Trasimeno.

Roger Bacon was to some extent under the inHuence of Arabic

science. He had all the superstitions^ of^ his^ contemporaries^ in^ regard to flying. He suggested that flying^ machines^ could^ be made so that a man "seated in the midst of the machine, revolving some sort of device^ by means^ of^ which^ wings^ artificially^ composed^ may

beat the air after the manner^ of^ a flying^ bird."^ Bacon's^ place^ is at

the end of the line in the prehistory of aviation. His^ ideas of flying

are the echo of the ancient idea that we have traced from China and

India, Persia and Arabia.

The modern history of aviation begins with Leonardo da Vinci.

The Air Mail^ of^ Ancient^ Times

Air-mail service was first established in the United States in

1918 when the New York-Washington mail route (^) (218 miles) was

established. While our air-mail is an epoch-making innovation and

an achievement of modern times, there was also a prehistoric air-mail

wdiich is no less admirable, carried on the wings of pigeons. This

institution we owe also to the Orient.

The first Chinese who made use of carrier pigeons is Chang

Kiu-ling (A.D. 673-740) a statesman and (^) poet, who corresponded

with his relatives by means of a flock of carrier pigeons, which he

called his flying slaves (fci nu). The messages were attached to

the feet of the birds who (^) were taught how to deliver them. The

government of China never employed pigeons for carrying impor-

tant messages, but their use remained restricted to private corres-

pondence chiefly for bringing news of the arrival of cargoes and

the (^) ruling prices of markets.

In India the use of carrier pigeons goes back to great antiquity

and may with (^) certainty be assumed to have been in full swing in

the beginning of our era. Kings of India received news about the

movement of hostile troops by domesticated pigeons. In Indian

stories various kinds of birds appear as harbingers of messages, the

white wild goose, for instance, the crow, and frequently parrots.

As regards Persia, many pigeons (^) were kept on their sea going

vessels, capable of flying several thousand li (Chinese miles). These

were released and they returned home bearing tidings as it were

510 THE^ OPEN^ COURT

that everything on board was well. In^ medieval^ times^ Persian

authors repeatedly refer to the conveyance of letters^ by^ pigeon

mail. The pigeon also appears^ in^ love^ songs^ as^ messenger^ and^ bearer

of love letters.

The use among the Greeks and Romans of carrier^ pigeons^ is

restricted to isolated instances^ were^ news^ is^ carried^ of^ victory^ in

the Olympian games or to a besieged city.^ Since^ there^ is^ no^ men-

tion made of their being trained for message bearing,^ it^ was^ prob-

ablv of no great significance^ among^ the^ ancients^ and^ probably^ died

out during the days of the decline of the^ Roman^ Empire.

Mesopotamia appears to be the home of the domesticated^ pigeon,

and the domestication of the bird^ was accomplished^ as^ early^ as^ pre-

Semitic times by the Sumerians. Among^ the Semites,^ pigeons^ are

closely connected with religious practices. They are sacred to^ the

goddess Ishtar. It is^ unknown^ when^ and^ where^ pigeons^ were^ first

trained for conveying messages. Both in Egypt and^ Mesopotamia

the practice^ was^ unknown,^ but^ it^ is^ improbable^ that^ the^ practice

could have developed where clay tablets^ were^ the^ common^ writing material.

The dove^ which^ Noah^ sent^ from^ the^ ark^ three^ times^ represents

an entirely distinct class in the category of^ land-spying^ birds^ which

navigators released when they had lost their bearings and^ were^ in

quest of land. These^ birds never^ returned^ to^ their^ ships.

In the 9th century when the Vikings^ sailed^ from^ Norway,^ they

kept birds on board which were set free from time^ to time^ amid^ sea,

and with^ their^ aid,^ succeeded^ in^ discovering^ Iceland.^ Land^ expedi-

tions would also be accompanied^ by^ land-spying^ birds^ and^ would

settle in a territory where the birds would descend.

In the present state of our knowledge we can only^ assert with

safety that the highest^ development^ in^ the^ use^ of^ pigeon^ mes-

sengers was reached in the empire of^ the^ Caliphs^ and^ under^ the

Mohammedan dynasties of Egypt, where the whole business^ was^ or-

ganized and^ systematized^ on^ a^ scientific^ basis,^ while^ of^ course,^ iso-

lated cases occured many^ centuries^ earlier.^ Indo-Iranian^ peoples

may very well have given the first impetus^ to the^ training^ of^ car-

rier pigeons. Under the Caliph, Nur-ed-din a regular^ air^ mail^ was

established. Pigeons^ were^ kept^ in^ all^ castles^ and^ fortresses^ of^ his

empire. Under the Caliph^ Ahmed^ Naser-lidin-allah^ air^ mail^ de-

veloped into a regular institution. Although^ many^ were^ engaged

THE PREHISTORY^ OF^ AVIATION^311

in the l)usiness of raising pigeons, their prices^ reached^ amazing

figures. A well trained pair^ sold^ as^ high^ as^1000 gold^ pieces.^ Bag-

dad was the central station for^ air-mail^ until^ it^ was^ conquered^ by

the Alongols^ in^ 1258. One of the most curious^ incidents^ in^ the^ history^ of^ airmail^ was

when the Caliph Aziz (975-996) had^ a^ great^ desire^ for^ a^ dish

of cherries^ from^ Balbek.^ His^ Vezir^ caused^600 pigeons^ to^ be^ des-

patched from Balbek to Cairo each of^ which^ carried^ attached^ to

either leg a small silk bag containing a cherry. This^ is the^ first^ record

of parcel post by air-mail.

Stanley Lane Poole, in his "History of Egypt in^ the^ ^liddle-

Ages," writes of Beybars^ (1266-77)^ "the^ most^ famous^ and^ energetic

of all the Bahri Mamluks, that he established^ a^ well-organized^ sys-

tem of posts, including the pigeon post... .The pigeons were kept in

cots in the citadel and at various^ stages^ which^ were^ farther^ apart

than those of the horses. The bird would stop at the first^ post-cot

where its letter^ would^ be attached^ to^ the^ wing^ of^ another^ pigeon^ for

the next stage. The royal pigeons had a distinguishing^ mark^ and

when one of these arrived at the citadel with a dispatch, none was

permitted to detach the parchment^ save^ the^ Sultan^ himself^ : and^ so

stringent were the rules that were he dining or sleeping or in^ the

bath, he would nevertheless be informed at once of the arrival

and would immediately proceed to disencumber^ the^ bird^ of^ its^ mes-

sage." The letters were written on a fine tissue paper and were fas-

tened beneath the wings and later to the tail feather.

During the middle ages the European nations became acquainted

with pigeon air-mail when the cross and the crescent clashed during

the Crusades. There are^ stories on^ record which^ depict the^ won-

der and amaaement of the Christian soldiers at witnessing this

novel experience. They brought carrier pigeons back from the Ori-

ent. Medieval knights^ used them^ in^ sending^ communications^ from

castle to castle. The convents did so also. All pigeons used in me-

dieval Europe for air-mail purposes were of Oriental origin.

The first employment of pigeons for military purposes in Europe

was during the siege of Harlem by the Spaniards in 1573. The

garrison received advices by pigeon mail announcing the approach

of a relief army under the Prince of Orania.

It is said that Rotchschild of London had his agents join Na-

poleon's army and send him first hand information by air-mail.

512 THE^ OPEN^ COURT

whereby he managed^ his^ financial^ speculations.^ Renter^ started^ his

career by organizing^ a pigeon^ post^ from^ Aix-la-Chapelle^ to^ Brussels-

A newspaper^ reporter^ equipped^ with^ a^ small^ pigeon^ cage^ was^ not^ a

rare sight. During^ the^ siege^ of^ Paris^ in^1870 the^ only^ news^ from^ the

outside world that^ reached^ the^ city^ was^ conveyed^ by^ the^ wings^ of

pigeons. In^ the^ world^ war^ pigeons^ were^ extensively^ utilized^ and

achieved brilliant^ records^ of^ flight^ under^ great^ difficulties.

Pigeons are^ still^ bred^ and^ kept^ in^ large^ numbers^ for^ messenger

service and^ racing.^ In^ good^ weather^ young^ birds^ will^ fly^ about

300 miles in^ seven^ to^ nine^ hours^ and^ flights^ of^600 miles^ in^ one

day have^ been^ accomplished^ by^ older^ birds.

KI-KUNG'S FLYING CHARIOT

Chinese Woodcut from^ T'u^ sliu^ tsi^ ch'eng

Courtesy of Field Museum

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter

I The^ Logic^ of^ Discovery

II What is the^ Place^ of^ Postulate^ Systems^ in^ the^ Further^ Prog'

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III On the Nature of Systems of Postulates IV Concerning^ the^ Postulational^ Treatment^ of^ Empirical^ Truth V The Structure of Exact^ Thought VI The Notion of Doctrinal Function

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VIII What is Reasoning? IX The Larger Human Worth^ of^ Mathematics

Index

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A DEBATE^ ON^ THE^ THEORY^ OF^ RELATIVITY^ with^ an^ intro-

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