Download Understanding Burns and Fractures: A Comprehensive Guide and more Exams Nursing in PDF only on Docsity! Pathophysiology Exam 1 Rasmussen Pathophysiology Exam 1 Rasmussen University Latest Updated 2024/2025 Stages of general adaptation syndrome - correct Answer1. Alarm Initial reaction Sympathetic nervous system 2. Resistance Adaptation Limit stressor 3. Exhaustion Adaptation failing Disease develops Edema - correct Answer Excess fluid in the interstitial space Dehydration (ECF volume deficit) - correct AnswerCan occur independently without electrolyte defects Decrease in fluid level leads to increase in level of blood solutes Cell shrinkage Hypotension Hypovolemia or fluid volume deficit - correct AnswerDecreased fluid in the intravascular space Hypotonic Hydration - correct Answer(fluid overload) Causes of Fluid Deficit - correct AnswerInadequate fluid intake Poor oral intake Inadequate IV fluid replacement Excessive fluid or sodium losses: Gastrointestinal losses Excessive diaphoresis Prolonged hyperventilation Hemorrhage Nephrosis Diabetes mellitus Diabetes insipidus Burns Open wounds Ascites Effusions Excessive use of diuretics Osmotic diuresis Deydration Manisfestations - correct Answerthirst, altered level of consciousness, hypotension, tachycardia, weak and thready pulse, flat jugular veins, dry mucous membranes, decreased skin turgor, oliguria, weight loss, and sunken fontanelles Cancer Benign - correct AnswerSlow, progressive, localized, well defined, resembles host (more differentiated), grows by expansion, does not usually cause death Cancer Malignant - correct AnswerRapid growing, spreads (metastasis) quickly, fatal, highly undifferentiated Sodium - correct AnswerNormal range: 135-145 mEq/L. • Most significant cation and prevalent electrolyte of extracellular fluid. • Controls serum osmolality and water balance. Plays a role in acid-base balance. • Facilitates muscles and nerve impulses. • Main source is dietary intake. • Excreted through the kidneys and gastrointestinal tract. Hypernatremia - correct AnswerSodium > 145 mEq/L Serum osmolarity increases • Results in fluid shifts Causes of Hypernatremia - correct AnswerExcessive sodium ingestion Hypertonic IV saline (3% saline) administration Cushing's syndrome Corticosteroid use Diarrhea Excessive sweating Prolonged episode of hyperventilation Diuretic use Diabetes insipidus Decreased water ingestion Loss of thirst sensation Inability to drink water Third spacing Vomiting Hypernatremia Manifestations: - correct Answerincreased temperature, warm and flushed skin, dry and sticky mucous membranes, dysphagia, increased thirst, irritability, agitation, weakness, headache, seizures, lethargy, coma, blood pressure changes, tachycardia, weak and thready pulse, edema, and decreased urine output Hyponatremia - correct AnswerSodium < 135 mEq/L Serum osmolarity decreases Causes of Hyponatremia - correct AnswerDeficient sodium Diuretic use Gastrointestinal losses Excessive sweating Insufficient aldosterone levels Adrenal insufficiency Dietary sodium restrictions Hypercalcemia - correct AnswerCalcium > 5 mEq/L Hypercalcemia Causes: - correct AnswerIncreased intake or release: calcium antacids, calcium supplements, cancer, immobilization, corticosteroids, vitamin D deficiency, and hypophosphatemia Deficit excretion: renal failure, thiazide diuretics, and hyperparathyroidism Hypercalcemia Manifestations: - correct Answerdysrhythmias, electrocardiogram changes, personality changes, confusion, decreased memory, headache, lethargy, stupor, coma, muscle weakness, decreased deep tendon reflexes, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, constipation, abdominal pain, pancreatitis, renal calculi, polyuria, and dehydration Hypercalcemia Treatment: - correct AnswerIdentify and manage underlying cause Manage symptoms Phosphate Increase mobility Calcitonin Intravenous fluids Diuretics Hypocalcemia - correct AnswerCalcium < 4 mEq/L Hypocalcemia Causes - correct AnswerExcessive losses: hypoparathyroidism, renal failure, hyperphosphatemia, alkalosis, pancreatitis, laxatives, diarrhea, and other medications Deficient intake: decreased dietary intake, alcoholism, absorption disorders, and hypoalbuminemia Hypocalcemia Manifestations: - correct Answerdysrhythmias, electrocardiogram changes, increased bleeding tendencies, anxiety, confusion, depression, irritability, fatigue, lethargy, paresthesia, increased deep tendon reflexes, tremors, muscle spasms, seizures, laryngeal spasms, increased bowel sounds, abdominal cramping, and positive Trousseau's and Chvostek's signs Нуросalcemia Treatment - correct AnswerIdentify and manage underlying cause Calcium replacement (oral or intravenous) Vitamin D Decrease phosphorus Phosphorus - correct AnswerNormal range: 2.5-4.5 mg/dL. Mostly found in the bones; small amounts are in the bloodstream. Plays a role in bone and tooth mineralization, cellular metabolism, acid base balance, and cell membrane formation. Main source is dietary intake. Excreted through the kidneys. Hyperphosphatemia - correct AnswerPhosphorus > 4.5 mg/dL Hyperphosphatemia Causes - correct AnswerDeficient excretion: renal failure, hypoparathyroidism, adrenal insufficiency, hypothyroidism, and laxatives Excessive intake or cellular exchange: cellular damage, hypocalcemia, and acidosis Hypophosphatemia - correct AnswerPhosphorus < 2.5 mg/dL Hypophosphatemia Causes - correct AnswerExcessive excretion or cellular exchange: renal failure, hyperparathyroidism, and alkalosis Deficient intake: malabsorption, vitamin D deficiency, magnesium and aluminum antacids, alcoholism, and decreased dietary intake Hypophosphatemia Treatment: - correct AnswerIdentify and manage the underlying cause Phosphorus replacement (oral or intravenous) Magnesium - correct AnswerNormal range: 1.8-2.5 mEq/L. An intracellular cation. Mostly stored in the bone and muscle. Plays a role in muscle and nerve function, cardiac rhythm, immune function, bone strength, blood glucose management, blood pressure, energy metabolism, and protein synthesis. Main source is dietary intake. Excreted through the kidneys. Hypermagnesemia - correct AnswerMagnesium > 2.5 mEq/L Hypomagnesemia - correct AnswerMagnesium < 1.8 mEq/L Hypomagnesemia Treatment: - correct Answermagnesium replacement (oral or intravenous) Signs of Inflammation: - correct Answerredness, heat, swelling, pain, loss of function Hypersensitivity - correct AnswerInflated response to antigen Leads to inflammation, which destroys healthy tissue Can be immediate or delayed Hypersensitivity types: - correct AnswerType I: IgE mediated Type II: cytotoxic hypersensitivity reaction Type III: immune complex-mediated Type IV: delayed hypersensitivity reaction Type I, IgE mediated - correct AnswerProduces an immediate response. Local or systemic. Allergen activates T-helper cells that stimulate B cells to produce IgE. -IgE coats mast cells and basophils, sensitizing them to the allergen. At next exposure, the antigen binds with the surface IgE, releasing mediators and triggering the complement system. Repeated exposure to large doses of allergen is necessary to cause this response. Type I, IgE mediated Examples: - correct AnswerHay fever, food allergies, and anaphylaxis Type I, IgE mediated Treatment - correct Answerincludes epinephrine, antihistamines, corticosteroids, and desensitizing injections. Type II, cytotoxic hypersensitivity reaction - correct AnswerIgG or IgM type antibodies bind to antigen on individual's own cells. Antigen may be intrinsic or extrinsic. Recognition of these cells by macrophages triggers antibody production. Lysis of cells occurs because of the activation of the complement and by phagocytosis. Usually immediate responses. Type II, cytotoxic hypersensitivity reaction Examples: - correct AnswerBlood transfusion reaction and erythroblastosis Type II, cytotoxic hypersensitivity reaction Treatment - correct Answerincludes ensuring blood compatibility (transfusion) and administering medication to prevent maternal antibody development (Rho[D]). Type III, immune complex-mediated hypersensitivity reaction - correct AnswerCirculating antigen antibody complexes accumulate and are deposited in the tissue. Triggers the complement system, causing inflammation. Type III, immune complex-mediated hypersensitivity reaction Example: - correct AnswerAutoimmune conditions (e.g., systemic lupus erythematosus) Type III and Type IV: Treatment - correct Answeris disease specific. Type IV, delayed hypersensitivity reaction - correct AnswerCell-mediated rather than antibody-mediated involving the T cells. Antigen presentation results in cytokine release, leading to inflammation. Causes severe tissue injury and fibrosis Type IV, delayed hypersensitivity reaction Examples: - correct AnswerTuberculin skin testing, transplant reactions, and contact dermatitis Immunodeficiency - correct AnswerDiminished or absent immune response Renders the person susceptible to disease normally prevented Opportunistic infections May be acute or chronic Classifications Primary Secondary HIV - correct AnswerParasitic retrovirus that infects CD4 and macrophages upon entry In the US, rates rising among women and African Americans Transmission Blood and bodily fluids Other manifestations: genital lesions in males, joint pain or aching, nail changes (e.g., thickening, yellow-brown spots, pits on the nail surface, and separation of the nail from the base), and dandru Atopic Dermatitis - correct AnswerAlso called eczema Chronic inflammatory condition triggered by an allergen Has an inherited tendency May be accompanied by asthma and allergic rhinitis Most common in infants and usually resolves by early adulthood Characterized by remissions and exacerbations Exact cause unknown, but may result from an immune system malfunction (similar to hypersensitivity reaction, i.e., IgE elevation present) Atopic march theory Atopic Dermatitis Complications - correct Answersecondary bacterial skin infections, neurodermatitis (permanent scarring and discoloration from chronic scratching), and eye problems (e.g., conjunctivitis) May affect any area, but typically appears on the arms and behind the knees Atopic Dermatitis Manifestations - correct AnswerRed to brownish-gray skin patches Pruritus, which may be severe, especially at night Vesicles Thickened (lichenified), cracked, or scaly skin Irritated, sensitive skin from scratching Systemic Lupus Erythematosus - correct AnswerChronic inflammatory autoimmune condition. May affect connective tissue of any body organ. Remission and exacerbations- -stressors tend to trigger. • Disease progression varies from mild to severe. More common in women, Asians, and African Americans. Cause is unclear, but it's thought that B cells are activated to produce autoantibodies and autoantigens that combine to form immune complexes, which attack the body's own tissues. Systemic Lupus Erythematosus manifestations - correct AnswerImmunological phenomena Antinuclear antibody Neurological disorders (seizures/psychosis) - Malar rash (butterfly rash over cheeks) - Discoid rash (patchy redness that can cause scarring) Systemic Lupus Erythematosus treatment - correct AnswerNo cure only symptom management Stress management and health promotion behaviors - Pharmacological • NSAIDS, antimalarials, corticosteroids, immunosuppressants, and DMARDS Plasmapheresis Prognosis improves with early diagnosis and treatment. Yeast infection candidiasis - correct AnswerA fungal infection typically on the skin or mucous membranes caused by candida. Syphilis - correct Answeris a bacterial infection usually spread by sexual contact. The disease starts as a painless sore - typically on your genitals, rectum or mouth. Syphilis spreads from person to person via skin or mucous membrane contact with these sores. Parasitic Infections Scabies - correct AnswerResult of a mite infestation. Male mites fertilize the females and then die. Female mites burrow into the epidermis, laying eggs over a period of several weeks through a series of tracts. After laying the eggs, the female mites die. Larvae hatch from the eggs and migrate to the skin's surface. Larvae burrow in search of nutrients and mature to repeat the cycle. Burrowing appears as small, light brown streaks on the skin. Burrowing and fecal matter left by the mites triggers the inflammatory process, leading to erythema and pruritus. Mites can only survive for short periods without a host, so transmission usually results from close contact. Treatment: topical treatments. Parasitic Infections Pediculosis - correct AnswerLice infestation: small, brown insects that feed off human blood and cannot survive long without host. Nits appear as small, white, iridescent shells on the hair. After hatching, the lice bite and suck the host's blood. Bite site develops a highly pruritic macule or papule. Easily transmitted through close contact. Treatment: several topical treatments. Pediculus humanus corpus: - correct Answerbody louse. Pediculus pubic: - correct Answerpubic louse. Pediculus humanus capitis: - correct Answerhead louse. Pediculosis - correct AnswerFemales lay nits on the hair shaft close to the scalp. Ticks - correct Answerare small, blood-sucking bugs. They can range in size from as small as a pin's head to as large as a pencil eraser. pressure ulcers - correct AnswerBedsores are injuries to skin and underlying tissue resulting from prolonged pressure on the skin. Bedsores most often develop on skin that covers bony areas of the body, such as the heels, ankles, hips and tailbone. Burns - correct AnswerInjury that can result from exposure to a thermal or nonthermal source Triggers inflammatory reaction and results in tissue destruction Burns Sources - correct Answerdry heat (e.g., fire), wet heat (e.g., steam or hot liquids), radiation, friction, heated objects, natural or artificial UV light, electricity, and chemicals (e.g., acids, alkaline, and paint thinner) Burns First-degree burns: - correct Answeraffect only the epidermis and cause pain, erythema, and edema Burns Second-degree burns: - correct Answeraffect the epidermis and dermis and cause pain, erythema, edema, and blistering Burns Third-degree burns: - correct Answerextend into deeper tissues and cause white or blackened, charred skin that may be numb Burns Complications: Diagnosis: - correct Answerlocal infection (particularly Staphylococcus infection), sepsis, hypovolemia, shock, hypothermia, respiratory problems, scarring, and contractures history, physical examination (including determining the total body surface area affected), chest X-ray, endoscopy, complete blood count, and blood chemistry Skin Cancer - correct AnswerAbnormal growth of skin cells. • Most frequently occurring cancer in the United States. • Most prevalent in males, Caucasians, those with fair complexion, and those with a family history. UV exposure, natural or artificial, is the most significant risk factor. Most skin cancers occur on areas that have the most sun exposure. Varies widely in appearance. Can be small, shiny, waxy, scaly, rough, firm, red, crusty, bleeding, and so on. Any suspicious skin lesion should be examined by a healthcare professional. Skin Cancer Basal cell carcinoma - correct AnswerMost common Develops from abnormal growth of the cells in the lowest layer of the epidermis Rarely metastasizes Skin Cancer Squamous cell carcinoma - correct Answer• Involves changes in the squamous cells, found in the middle layer of the epidermis Skin Cancer Melanoma - correct AnswerDevelops in the melanocytes Least common type but the most serious Often metastasizes to other areas Skin Cancer Suspicious features - correct AnswerAsymmetry Border irregularity Color variations Diameter larger than 6 mm Any skin growth that bleeds or will not heal Any skin growth that changes in appearance over time Skin Cancer Diagnosis: Prevention: Treatment: - correct AnswerEarly detection is crucial to positive outcomes. history, physical examination, and biopsy. limiting or avoiding exposure to UV light. cryosurgery, excisional surgery, laser therapy, Mohs' surgery (the skin growth is removed layer by layer, examining each layer under the microscope, until no abnormal cells remain), curettage and electrodesiccation (involves scraping layers of cancer cells away using a circular blade [currette] and then using an electric needle to destroy any remaining cancer cells), radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. Osteomyelitis - correct Answerinfection of the bone tissue Can take months to resolve and result in bone or tissue necrosis Treatment: potent antibiotic therapy (often long- term) and surgery (e.g., debridement) Open fracture, or compound fracture: - correct Answerskin is broken, and bone fragments or edges may be angled and protrude out of the skin Causes more damage to soft tissue and increase risk for infection Closed fracture - correct Answerskin is intact Impacted fracture - correct Answerone end of the bone is forced into the adjacent bone Pathologic fracture - correct Answerresults from a weakness in the bone structure secondary to conditions such as tumors or osteoporosis Stress fracture, or fatigue fractures - correct Answeroccurs from repeated excessive stress Common in the tibia, femur, and metatarsals Depressed fracture - correct Answeroccurs in the skull when the broken piece is forced inward on the brain Rheumatoid Arthritis - correct AnswerSystemic, autoimmune condition involving multiple joints. Inflammatory process primarily affects the synovial membrane, but can also affect other organs. Often experience remissions and exacerbations, progressing with each exacerbation. Usually starts with an acute inflammatory episode after which the joint may appear to recover. Pathogenesis: synovitis, pannus formation, cartilage erosion, fibrosis, and ankyloses. The synovium thickens because of the cumulative effect of the reoccurring inflammation. • The thickened synovium eventually invades and destroys the cartilage and bone within the joint. Muscles, tendons, and ligaments weaken and stretch. Joints can lose their shape and alignment. Usually affects joints unilaterally. • Most commonly affects the wrists, fingers, knees, feet, and ankles. Rheumatoid Arthritis Cause and Risk Factor - correct AnswerThe exact cause is unknown, but it is thought to be caused by a genetic vulnerability that permits a virus or bacterium to trigger the disease. • Risk factors: being female, family history, advancing age (however, there is a juvenile form), and smoking. Rheumatoid Arthritis Manifestations - correct AnswerUsually insidious onset Progressively worsen Fatigue • Anorexia Low-grade fever Lymphadenopathy Malaise Muscle spasms Morning stiffness lasting more than 1 hour Warmth, tenderness, and stiffness in the joints when not used Bilateral joint pain • Swollen and boggy joints • Limited joint range of motion • Contractures and joint deformity (e.g., boutonniere deformity and swan neck deformity) unsteady gait depression anemia Rheumatoid Arthritis Treatment - correct AnswerNo cure. Focuses on slowing the progression, managing the pain, and promoting independence. Early, aggressive treatment can delay joint destruction. Requires a multidisciplinary approach. Adequate rest and pacing activities. Physical and occupational therapy. Regular exercise. Pharmacologic therapies: Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs Corticosteroids (orally or as an intra-articular injection) Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (e.g., gold compounds, immunosuppressant agents, and antimalarial agents) Biologic response- modifying agents Herbal therapies including thunder god vine, plant oils, and fish oil Nonpharmacologic pain management Application of heat and cold Splint and braces Assistive devices (e.g., walkers and rails) Coping strategies and support Surgical repair (e.g., synovectomy and arthroplasty) Gout - correct AnswerInflammatory disease resulting from deposits of uric acid crystals in tissues and fluids. Uric acid is a by-product of breaking down purines, a substance naturally found in the body and in certain foods (e.g., organ meats, shellfish, anchovies, herring, asparagus, and mushrooms). • Results from hyperuricemia caused by an overproduction or underexcretion (most common) of uric acid. Not all people with hyperuricemia have gout. Most common in males and African Americans. Causes: inborn error in metabolism, being overweight or obese, having certain diseases (e.g., hypertension, diabetes mellitus, renal disease, and sickle cell anemia), consuming alcohol (beer and spirits more than wine), using certain medications (e.g., diuretics), and eating a diet rich in meat and seafood Osteoarthritis - correct AnswerDegenerative joint disease characterized by local deterioration of articulating cartilage and its underlying bone as well as bony overgrowth. Cartilage surface becomes rough and worn, interfering with joint movement. • Tissue damage triggers enzyme release from local cells, accelerating cartilage disintegration. Subchondral bone becomes exposed and damaged, and cysts and osteophytes develop as the bone attempts to remold itself. Osteophytes and cartilage pieces break off into the synovial cavity, further increasing irritation. Nearby muscles and ligaments may become weakened and loose. Results in joint space narrowing, joint instability, stiffness, and pain. • The knees, hips, and joints in the hands and spine are most commonly affected. • Not inflammatory in origin, but inflammation results from the tissue irritation. • Causes: idiopathic and excessive mechanical stress on the joint (e.g., obesity, overuse, injury, and congenital musculoskeletal conditions). • More common in women. Osteoarthritis Manifestations - correct AnswerJoint stiffness, especially upon rising in the morning or after a period of inactivity Enlarged, hard joints • Joint swelling Limited joint range of motion Crepitus Hard nodules around the affected joint (bone spurs) Osteoarthritis Diagnosis: Treatment - correct Answerhistory, physical examination, X- rays, and MRI Goals are to increase joint strength, maintain joint mobility, reduce disability, and relieve pain. Physical therapy. Weight loss/management. Ambulatory aids (e.g., walkers and canes). Orthopedic devices (e.g., braces and splints) Pharmacology: topical analgesics, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, corticosteroids (either orally or as an intra-articular injection), glucosamine, chondroitin, and ginger Pain management Surgery (e.g., arthroscopy, osteotomy, surgical fusion, and arthroplasty) Psoriatic arthritis - correct AnswerA form of arthritis that affects some people who have the skin condition psoriasis. Psoriatic arthritis is a type of inflammatory arthritis. Symptoms include joint pain, stiffness, and swelling, which may flare and subside. Many people with the condition are affected by morning stiffness. Even mild skin psoriasis can have a significant degree of arthritis. Treatment may include medication to reduce inflammation, steroid injections, or joint replacement surgery. Fibromyalgia - correct AnswerSyndrome predominately characterized by widespread muscular pains and fatigue. • Affects muscles, tendons, and surrounding tissue, but it doe not affect the joints. Eighteen fibromyalgia-specific pressure points, where pain or tenderness may be stimulated, have been identified in the neck, shoulder, trunk, and limbs. • No apparent inflammation or degeneration is associated with fibromyalgia. The cause remains uncertain, but be may related to an altered pattern of central neurotransmission that results in sensitivity to substance P. Other pain-processing abnormalities include decreased levels of inhibitory transmitters, enhanced temporal summation of second pain, altered endogenous opioid analgesic activity, and dopamine dysregulation. The brain's pain receptors seem to develop a sort of pain memory and become more sensitive to pain signals. Additional causes may be physical or emotional trauma, sleep disturbances, altered skeletal muscle metabolism, infections, and genetic predisposition. • More common in women. Fibromyalgia Manifestations - correct AnswerMay vary depending on the weather, stress, fatigue, physical activity, and time of day. Characterized by widespread pain, typically described as a constant, dull muscle ache. May also include fatigue, sleep disturbances, depression, irritable bowel syndrome, headaches, and memory problems. • Other conditions that may be present include rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and ankylosing spondylitis. Potassium live lecture - correct Answerhigher inside of the cell How to get rid of fluid - correct Answerurination, sweating, breathing Vasodilation - correct AnswerHow we allow more blood flow. The vein gets bigger. Cortisol - correct Answerstress hormone; similar to epinephrine Calcium live lecture - correct Answercalcium's buddy for absorption is vitamin D. Phosphorus is the inverse. Chvotek's Sign - correct AnswerCheck for low calcium by twitch in the cheek Trousseau's Test - correct AnswerLow calcium test; abnormal response to wrist when checking for blood pressure Scabies live lecture - correct Answerburrows into skin in straight linear pattern macrophages - correct Answerthese cells are looking to eat up anything that's foreign. 1st on the scene. What causes osteoarthritis? - correct Answerlong-term or excessive wear and tear on joints CDC - correct Answercomplete blood count. Gives total of all white blood cells. CDC with diff. - correct AnswerGives break down of how much of each white blood cell there is. Psoriasis - correct Answerproblems people also have with psoriatic arthritis Carcinogenesis - correct Answerdevelopment of cancer 1. initiation 2. promotes 3. progress Wash hands - correct AnswerNumber 1 way to prevent the spread of infection Compartment Syndrome Lecture - correct Answerparestesia - tingling/numbness pallor - color/pale pain paralysis pulselessness Shingles Live lecture - correct Answermanifests on skin as a rash on one side of the body. Follows a nerve. Red, itchy, bumpy, vesicles Sepsis - correct AnswerDangerous infection of the blood; major complication of a bacterial infection. Body can go into septic shock. Immunoglobin elevated IGE - correct AnswerType 1 hypersensitivity reaction Active immunity - correct AnswerA form of acquired immunity in which the body produces its own antibodies against disease-causing antigens. Passive immunity - correct AnswerAn individual does not produce his or her own antibodies, but rather receives them directly from another source, such as mother to infant through breast milk Low calcium - correct Answerspasms high calcium - correct Answersluggish Type I: - correct AnswerIgE mediated Type II: - correct Answercytotoxic hypersensitivity reaction Type III: - correct Answerimmune complex-mediated Type IV: - correct Answerdelayed hypersensitivity reaction Verrucae - correct AnswerTreatment: laser treatments, cryotherapy with liquid nitrogen, electrocautery, and topical medications (e.g., keralytic, cytotoxic, and antiviral agents) May return after treatment Gout Treatment - correct AnswerTreatment consists of self care and anti- inflammatories During an acute attack, anti-inflammatory medications can help relieve pain and shorten the length of the attack. Patients with chronic gout can use behavioral modification such as diet, exercise, and decreased intake of alcohol to help minimize the frequency of attacks. Additionally, patients with chronic gout are often put on medications such as colchicine. passive immunity - correct AnswerTransfer of performed antibodies against a specific antigen from protected or immunized individual to an unprotected or non-immunized individual Examples of passive immunity - correct AnswerIgA in breast milk, maternal IgG crossing placenta, antitoxin, serotherapy (direct injection of antibodies) Potassium Value normal range( intercellular cation) - correct Answer3.5-5.0 mEq/L Sodium value normal range (major cation of extracellular fluid) - correct Answer135- 145 mEq/L Calcium value normal range - correct Answer9-11 mg/dL OR 4.5-5.5 mEq/L Phosphate value normal range - correct Answer2.5-4.5 mg/dL Magnesium value normal range - correct Answer1.5-2.5 mEq/L Bicarbonate value normal range (second most abundant anion in blood) - correct Answer23-30 mEq/L Condition of low potassium < 3.5 mEq/L - correct Answerhypokalemia Condition of high potassium >5 mEq/L - correct AnswerHyperkalemia Condition of sodium < 135 mEq/L - correct Answerhyponatremia / hypernatremia Condition of high sodium>145 mEq/L - correct Answerhypernatremia condition of low phosphate < 2.5 mg/dL - correct Answerhypophophatemia Condition of high phosphate > 4.5 mg/dL - correct AnswerHyperphosphatemia Condition of low chloride <96 mEq/L - correct Answerhypochloremia Condition of high chloride > 106 mEq/L - correct AnswerHyperchloremia Condition of low magnesium <1.5 mEq/L - correct Answerhypomagnesemia Condition of high magnesium >2.5 mEq/L - correct AnswerHypermagesemia condition of low calcium< 9mg/dL - correct Answerhypocalcemia condition of high calcium > 11mg/dL - correct Answerhypercalcemia Pathophysiology - correct Answerthe study of abnormalities in physiologic functioning of living beings Pathology - correct Answerthe study and diagnosis of disease through examination of organs, tissues, cells, and bodily fluids Etiology - correct AnswerThe study of the causes and origins of disease Slowed Respirations Weakness ↓DTR ↓Bone Density Irritability/Confusion/Seizures ↓Platelet aggregation ↑Bleeding Immunosupression Hyperphosphatemia S/S - correct AnswerCauses hypocalcemia: +Trousseau's and Chvosteks Hypomagnesemia S/S - correct AnswerTorsades de Pointes (tornado in the heart) Afib, Vfib, Prolonged QT, flattened T wave, N/T, painful muscle contractions, decreased GI, constipations, nausea, paralytic ileus Hypermagnesemia S/S - correct AnswerBrady, hypotension, cardiac arrest, lethargy, coma, resp failure, death Hyperkalemia causes and treatment - correct AnswerCauses: ACE inhibitors, kidney failure, multiple blood transfusions, excessive or too rapid IV potassium Treatment: Excrete excess potassium (with drugs), force potassium from ECF back into cells Hypokalemia causes and treatment - correct AnswerCauses: Diuretic use, N/V, NPO too long, unbalanced diet, corticosteroids, prolonged ng suctioning, water intoxication Treatment: Replace potassium either IV or PO Hypernatremia causes and treatment - correct AnswerCauses: Kidney failure, long term corticosteroid use, excessive sodium intake (diet or IV), watery diarrhea, dehydration Treatment: Hemodialysis for kidney failure, fluid replacement for water loss, diuretics to help rid body of excess fluid and sodium Hyponatremia causes and treatment - correct Answercauses: Diuretic use, excessive sweating, NPO for too long, excessive consumption of water/beer/other hypertonic fluids Treatment: if caused by diuretics, doses of those drugs will need to be changes or discontinued Hypercalcemia causes and treatment - correct AnswerCauses: hyperparathyroidism, malignant tumors, kidney failure, excessive calcium or vitamin d supplements, prolonged immobility Treatment: Cardiac monitoring, interventions depend on cause but drug therapy can be used to reduce levels. If caused by diuretics, dosage changed/discontinued Hypocalcemia causes and treatment - correct AnswerCauses: Hypoparathyroidism, vitamin D deficiency, malabsorption (from Crohn's or Celiac) immobility, diarrhea, inadequate oral calcium intake Treatment: focus on replacing calcium and/or vitamin D, until corrected keep patients on seizure precautions, in a low stimulus environment Hyperphosphatemia causes and treatment - correct AnswerCauses: increased phosphate intake, shift from cells to EFC, decreased phosphate excretion Treatment: Hypophosphatemia causes and treatment - correct AnswerCauses: decreased phosphate intake, shift from ECF to cells, increased phosphate excretion. Treatment: Hypermagnesemia causes and treatment - correct AnswerCauses: Kidney disease, overuse of magnesium-containing antacids or laxatives, excessive mag intake, IV mag replacement therapy Treatment: If caused by excessive intake, decrease it, if due to kidney failure dialysis is used, if no kidney failure, give IV fluids to dilute, or loop diuretics to help excretion. Hypomagnesemia causes and treatment - correct AnswerCauses: Diuretic use, inadequate intake, chronic alcoholism, diarrhea, celiac, crohns, chemo, anti-rejection drugs, mass transfusion Treatment: replacement with mag sulfate, monitor closely to prevent hypermag Which hormones move electrolytes from the pool to the ECF? - correct Answerepinephrine Components of the Immune System - correct Answer(1) skin and mucous membranes; (2) the mononuclear phagocyte system; (3) the lymphoid system, including spleen, thymus gland, and lymph nodes; and (4) bone marrow. AND B cells; T cells active immunity - correct AnswerA form of acquired immunity in which the body produces its own antibodies against disease-causing antigens. 5 cardinal signs of inflammation - correct Answerheat, redness, swelling, pain, loss of function Examples of active immunity - correct Answernatural infection, vaccines, toxoid Hormones released during GAS - correct Answercatecholamines (epi and norepi) adrenocortical steroids (cortisol and aldosterone) endorphines and enkephalins (endogenous opiods, increase pain threshold, produce sedation and euphoria) Immune cytokines (enhance immune system, when prolonged they suppress it) Sex hormones (estrogen and testosterone) Growth hormone Oxytocin (female "tend+befriend" vs fight or flight) passive transport - correct Answerrequires no energy, along the gradient from high concentration to low (ex: diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion) active transport - correct Answerrequires energy, against the gradient from low concentration to high (ex: endocytosis (entering cell), exocytosis(exiting cell), and protein pumps) osmosis - correct Answerpassive transport of water, moving from high to low Difference between osmosis and diffusion - correct Answerosmosis is the diffusion of water and diffusion is the movement of any type of molecule across the cell membrane from a high to low concentration. Dehydration (etiology, clinical manifestations, and treatment) - correct AnswerCauses: vomiting, diarrhea, removal of saline from the body causes extracellular volume deficit and removal of extra water from the body causes hypernatremia, the combination is dehydration. S/S: hard stools, sudden weight loss, rapid pulse, oliguria, prolonged capillary refill time, decreased skin turgor, dry mouth, absence of sweat and tears, confusion, lethargy, thirst Treatment: replenish fluids PO or IV antimicrobial resistance - correct Answeroccurs when pathogens undergo changes that allow them to resist antimicrobials (Ex: MRSA) mediators of acute inflammation - correct Answerhistamine, serotonin, bradykinin, prostaglandins, leukotrienes Osteoporosis - correct AnswerA condition in which the body's bones become weak and break easily. muscular dystrophy - correct Answergroup of hereditary diseases characterized by degeneration of muscle and weakness Fibromyalgia - correct Answerchronic condition with widespread aching and pain in the muscles and fibrous soft tissue myasthenia gravis - correct Answera chronic AUTOIMMUNE disease that affects the neuromuscular junction and produces serious weakness of voluntary muscles Osteoarthritis - correct Answera degenerative joint disease in which the cartilage covering the surface of bone becomes thinner and rougher (noninflammatory) Traits of a benign tumor - correct AnswerWill not kill, but may be life threatening due to location doesnt spread to adjacent tissue many are encapsulated more closely resembles original tissue grows more slowly little vascularity rarely necrotic often retains original function Define metastasis - correct AnswerThe spread of cancer cells beyond their original site what does bone marrow suppression result in? - correct AnswerDecreased blood counts including RBC WBC and platelets Define Leukopenia - correct Answerdecrease in WBC Define thrombocytopenia - correct Answerlow platelet count Define cachexia - correct Answerweakness and wasting of the body due to severe chronic illness Identify Antibody IgG - correct Answermost common Protects the body from infection smallest easily escapes the bloodstream circulates as single molecules Identify antibody IgM - correct Answerfirst to be produced when exposed to antigen/immunization consists of five antibody molecules joing together to form a pentamer major antibody found on B-cell surfaces. works best as active component identify antibody IgA - correct Answeris two antibodies together to create a dimer produced by plasme cells located in tissue under skin/mucous membranes primarily in saliva, tears, tracheobrachial secretions, colostrum, breast milk, and GI/GU secretion identify antibody IgD - correct Answerfound in tiny amounts in serum located primarily on B cell membranes Thought to be cellular antigen receptor that acts to stimulate B cell to multiply, differentiate, secrete other specificc immunoglobins Identify antibody IgE - correct Answercirculates as a single molecule bound by Fc tail to receptors on basophil and mast cell surfaces helps in immunity against helminthic parasites responsible for initiating inflammatory and allergic reactions functions as signaling molecule causes mast cell degranulationwhen antigen detected at mast cell surface.