Vocabulary Expansion: Exploring Diverse Linguistic Concepts, Exams of Advanced Education

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400 Must Have Words for the TOEFL (Example

sentences included; 'Usage Tips' are treated as

example sentences. The word in the example

sentence is replaced with a ~ if it is in the exact

form or ~+ otherwise).

abandon (v.) - to leave; to give up Ex: To save their lives, the sailors had to ~ the sinking ship. adversely (adj.) - in a harmful way; negatively Ex: Excessive rainfall early in the spring can ~ affect the planting of crops. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by affect. aggregate (adj.) - gathered into or amounting to a whole Ex: It is impossible to judge last year's performance without knowing the ~ sales numbers. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by a term like sum, total, or numbers. cultivation (n.) - preparing the land to grow crops; improvement for agricultural purposes Ex: With the development of land ~, hunters and gatherers were able to settle in one place. fertilize (v.) - to supply with nourishment for plants by adding helpful substances to the soil Ex: This farm ~+ tomatoes more than any other crop. intensify (v.) - to increase in power; to act with increased strength Ex: Jacob's long absence ~+ his certainty that he should marry Rose. irrigation (n.) - the supplying of water to dry land Ex: In dry areas of the country, you can see ditches all over the farm-land for ~. obtain (v.) - to gain possession of; to get Ex: After a series of difficult interviews, he finally was able to ~ the job. photosynthesis (n.) - the process by which green plants make their own food by combining water, salts, and carbon dioxide in the presence of light Ex: Oxygen is a by-product of the process of ~. precipitation (n.) - water that falls to the Earth's surface Ex: In the Pacific Northwest, the high level of ~ ensures rich, green plant life.

anticipate (v.) - to expect; to sense something before it happens Ex: By placing sensors in earthquake-prone areas, scientists can ~ some tremors in time to warn the public. catastrophic (adj.) - extremely harmful; causing financial or physical ruin Ex: The architect died in a ~ elevator accident. collide (v.) - to come together with great or violent force Ex: As usual, their holiday was ruined when their in-laws' views on politics ~+ with their own. eruption (n.) - a sudden, often violent, outburst Ex: The ~ of Mount St. Helens in 1980 caused 57 deaths and immeasurable change to the face of the mountain. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by an of phrase. famine (n.) - severe hunger; a drastic food shortage Ex: The potato ~ in Ireland in the mid-nineteenth century caused large numbers of Irish people to emigrate to America. flood (n.) - an overflowing of water; an excessive amount Ex: The constant rain and poor drainage system caused a ~ in town. Ex: The political party sent out a ~ of letters criticizing their opponents. impact (n.) - a strong influence Ex: The speech about the importance of education made an ~ on me. Usage Tips: ~ is usually followed by on or of. persevere (v.) - to keep going, despite obstacles or discouragement; to maintain a purpose Ex: The hikers ~+ despite the bad weather and the icy trail. plunge (v.) - to go down suddenly; to decrease by a great amount in a short time Ex: He jumped off the diving board and ~+ into the pool. Ex: The value of the company's stock ~+ after its chief executive was arrested. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by an into phrase. unleash (v.) - to release a thing or an emotion Ex: When they saw the strange man on their property, they ~+ their dogs. Ex: He is from such an unemotional family, he will never learn to ~ his feelings. adapt (v.) - to adjust to the circumstances; to make suitable Ex: Dinosaurs could not ~ to the warmer temperatures. Ex: The teacher ~+ the exercises for his more advanced students. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by to.

diverse (n.) - various; showing a lot of differences within a group Ex: India is one of the most linguistically ~ countries in the world. Usage Tips: An - ly adverb (e.g., linguistically) often comes before ~. evolve (v.) - to develop; to come forth Ex: Modern-day sharks ~+ from their ancestor Eryops, which lived more than 200 million years ago. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by into or from. feature (n.) - part, characteristic Ex: The best ~ of this car is its heated seats. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by of. generation (n.) - a group of people born at about the same time Ex: As older managers retired, a new ~ of leaders took control of the company. Usage Tips: Before ~, an adjective like new, next, earlier, or older is common. ~ is often followed by of. inherent (adj.) - naturally characteristic; always found within something, because it's a basic part of that thing Ex: No job can be interesting all the time. Boredom is ~ in any kind of work. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by in. migration (n.) - movement from one place to another by a group of people or animals Ex: The ~ of farm workers from one state to the next depends primarily on the harvest. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by to or from. physical (adj.) - related to the body; related to materials that can be seen or felt Ex: Because of the shape of its throat, an ape does not have the ~ ability to speak. Ex: The mountains form a ~ barrier between the west and the east. Usage Tips: ~ usually comes before the noun it describes. process (n.) - a series of steps leading to a result Ex: To get a good job, most people go through a long ~ of letter-writing and interviews. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by of plus the - ing form of a verb. survive (v.) - to continue living (despite some danger or illness) Ex: After getting lost in the mountains, Gordon ~+ by eating wild plants and catching fish. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by a phrase with by. constraint (n.) - something that restricts thought or action Ex: The ~+ of military life kept Eileen from seeing Private Morris more than once a month.

contamination (n.) - being made less clean by a germ or hazardous substance Ex: The ~ in the river came from the factory located just upstream. deplete (v.) - to greatly decrease the supply of a resource or material Ex: The prolonged war ~+ the country's national treasury. dispose of (v.) - to throw away; to get rid of; to kill Ex: She ~+ her unwanted possessions before moving. The tyrant cruelly disposed of all his enemies. Usage Tips: ~ should be learned as a unit. In this meaning, ~+ does not occur without of. elementally (adv.) - in terms of elements; basically Ex: ~, coal and diamonds are the same. emission (n.) - sending out from a small space into the general environment; a substance discharged into the air Ex: The Environmental Protection Agency regulates the ~ of pollutants into the air. Usage Tips: ~ is usually followed by an of phrase. extinction (n.) - complete disappearance; the end of existence Ex: Human beings have caused the ~ of many other species. Usage Tips: ~ implies an absolute end; an ~+ thing cannot be brought back into existence. reservoir (n.) - a place where a liquid is collected and stored Ex: Cult members threatened to poison the town's water ~. shrink (v.) - to become reduced in size, amount, or value Ex: If you dry your clothing on the "high heat" setting, they may ~. stable (adj.) - firm and dependable; showing little change Ex: He fell because the ladder wasn't ~. adjust (v.) - to change; to get accustomed to something Ex: Travelers are advised to ~ their watches before arriving in the new time zone. arbitrary (adj.) - chosen simply by whim or chance, not for any specific reason Ex: The decision to build a school in Blackberry Township was ~, without any thought to future housing patterns. denominator (n.) - the number written below the line in a fraction Ex: In the fraction 1⁄2, the number 2 is the ~. Usage Tips: The phrase lowest common ~ means "the most basic and unsophisticated things that most people share."

exponentially (adv.) - at a very fast rate Ex: In Turkey, the value of the lira has decreased ~ in the last several decades. Usage Tips: ~ is taken from mathematics, where an ~+ is a number indicating how many times something is multiplied by itself. For example, 43 contains the ~+ "3", indicating 4 × 4 × 4. infinitesimal (adj.) - immeasurably small Ex: The number of contaminants in the water was ~, so the water was safe to drink. maximize (v.) - to increase or make as great as possible Ex: A coach helps each athlete ~ his or her potential. parallel (adj.) - being an equal distance apart everywhere Ex: The street where I live runs ~ to the main road through town. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by to. proportion (n.) - a part in relation to the whole Ex: The average employee spends a large ~ of each workday answering e-mails. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by of. rate (n.) - the cost per unit of a good or service; the motion or change that happens in a certain time Ex: Postal ~+ in Japan are among the highest in the world. Usage Tips: Some grasses grow at the ~ of one inch per day. sequence (v.) - to organize or arrange in succession Ex: Volunteers have been asked to ~ the files and organize the boxes. accuracy (n.) - precision; exactness Ex: The research department checks all our articles for ~ of facts before we print them. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by of. adjacent (adj.) - next to Ex: Even though the villages are ~ to each other, their residents speak different languages. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by to. compress (v.) - to press together Ex: To make the foundation stronger, they ~+ the soil before pouring the concrete. feasibly (adv.) - practically; in a way that can work Ex: Scientists can't ~ bring energy from deep ocean currents to where it is needed-on land. gut (v.) - to empty or hollow out Ex: In order to remodel the house, we must first ~ it and throw away all the old fixtures.

Usage Tips: ~ also means "the stomach of an animal"; this verb makes an image, that the inside of a building is like the inside of an animal. integrally (adv.) - in a whole or complete manner Ex: Writing and spelling are taught ~ as part of the reading program. overlap (v.) - to lie over part of something; to have elements in common Ex: One of the two assistants will likely get fired, since most of their duties in the office ~. retain (v.) - to keep or hold Ex: The rain fell so heavily that the banks of the river could not ~ all the water. seep (v.) - to pass slowly for a long time, as a liquid or gas might Ex: As the containers rusted, the toxic waste ~+ into the ground. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by into or through. structure (n.) - something constructed, such as a building Ex: Most companies have a social ~ that can't be understood by outsiders. circulate (v.) - to move throughout an area or group; to move along a somewhat circular route Ex: The gossip ~+ quickly through the small town. Ex: Blood ~+ more quickly during physical exercise. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by through. corrode (v.) - to be slowly weakened by chemical reactions Ex: Sitting in salt water, the old coins ~+ and became very easy to break. Usage Tips: A familiar kind of ~+ produces rust, the reddish coating on iron or steel that has been exposed to air and water. derive (v.) - to come from, usually through a long, slow process Ex: The Cyrillic alphabet was ~+ from the Greek alphabet. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by from. detection (n.) - discovering something that cannot easily be found Ex: With new medical technology, the ~ of cancer is much easier nowadays. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by an of phrase. expeditiously (adv.) - quickly and efficiently Ex: Using carrier pigeons, the military commanders exchanged messages ~. implement (v.) - to make use of; to carry out Ex: Not until after the new software was installed could we ~ the new filing system. installation (n.) - setting something into position for use

Ex: ~ of the new software takes only four minutes. maintenance (n.) - the act of keeping something in good condition Ex: The only problem with living in such a big house is that it requires a lot of ~. simulation (n.) - an imitation or representation Ex: To test car safety, automobile makers study crash ~+. innovative (adj.) - ahead of the times; novel Ex: The ~ use of props and lighting drew many favorable comments. combustion (n.) - the process of burning Ex: When air quality is poor, ~ of materials in a fireplace is prohibited. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by of. component (n.) - one part of a system or whole Ex: Their home theater system has a number of separate ~+. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed or preceded by of. convey (v.) - to transport from one place to another; to transmit or make known Ex: A messenger ~+ the prince's letter to the commander of the army. Ex: The worst part about being a doctor was when she had to ~ bad news to a family. discretely (adv.) - separately; distinctly Ex: In order to understand how the engine worked, each component needed to be studied ~. nucleus (n.) - a central or essential part around which other parts are gathered; a core Ex: The ~ of many European cities is the town square. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by of. permeate (v.) - to spread or flow through out ; to pass through or penetrate Ex: The smell of cooking ~+ the entire apartment building. rotate (v.) - to turn around; to take turns in sequence Ex: The planet ~+ on its axis once every 14 Earth days. Ex: The children ~ classroom responsibilities on a weekly basis. solar (adj.) - of, or relating to, the sun Ex: The ancient society kept time with a ~ calendar. source (n.) - the point of origin or creation Ex: The reporter was unable to identify the ~ of the information for his story. trigger (v.) - to set off or initiate

Ex: I was certain any mention of politics would ~ a big argument. acquisition (n.) - the act of taking possession of something Ex: Our recent ~ of over 2,000 books makes ours the biggest library in the region. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by of. anomaly (n.) - something unusual Ex: White tigers get their beautiful coloring from a genetic ~. consciously (adv.) - with awareness of one's actions Ex: He may have hurt her feelings, but he never would have done so ~. degrade (v.) - to reduce in value or strength Ex: The roads in cold or wet areas of the United States ~ faster than those in warm, sunny regions. gap (n.) - opening; a big difference in amount or quality Ex: The small ~ between the walls in the old house caused cold drafts to come in. indisputable (adj.) - beyond doubt; unquestionable Ex: The members of the jury found her guilty because they found the facts of the case ~. intervene (v.) - to come between Ex: A good mediator ~+ only as much as necessary to settle a dispute between other parties. intuitively (adv.) - by means of a natural sense about things that are hard to observe Ex: Many mothers know ~ when something is wrong with their children. recede (v.) - to move back or away from Ex: After the age of 30, his hairline began to ~ further back from his forehead. retrieve (v.) - to bring or get back Ex: Most dogs can be trained to ~ objects that their owners have thrown. agnostic (adj.) - believing that humans cannot know whether there is a god Ex: His devoutly Christian parents had problems with his ~ beliefs. animism (n.) - the belief that natural objects, such as trees, have souls Ex: Desert cultures that practice ~ often believe that winds contain spirits. atheist (n.) - one who does not believe in the existence of a supreme being Ex: He argued that his scientific training made it impossible for him to be anything but an ~. be inclined to (v.) - to favor an opinion or a course of action

Ex: He couldn't say which candidate he favored, but he had always ~+ vote Republican. contemplate (v.) - to consider thoughtfully Ex: If you contemplate each step for so long, we will never complete this project on time. deify (v.) - to worship as a god Ex: When people ~ the leader of their country, the leader is able to abuse power more easily. ecclesiastical (adj.) - relating to a church Ex: He was looking specifically for a university where he could study ~ history. exalt (v.) - to praise or honor Ex: He would often ~ the virtues of his new wife. pious (adj.) - having or exhibiting religious reverence Ex: Sometimes she was so ~ that the rest of us felt like heathens. sacrifice (v.) - anything offered to a deity as a religious thanksgiving; giving up something in order to have something more valuable later on Ex: Every harvest time, the Fadeloni people ~+ vegetables to their gods as a show of thanks. Ex: In order to succeed in his career, he had to ~ his private life and his leisure time. aggravate (v.) - to make worse; to anger or intensify Ex: Running will ~ your sore knees. decrepit (adj.) - weakened or worn out because of age, illness, or excessive use Ex: The once-beautiful building was now dirty, ~, and roofless. disease (n.) - an unhealthful condition caused by an infection or a long-term physical problem Ex: Thanks to developments in medicine, many once-fatal ~+ can now be cured. fatally (adv.) - causing death or disaster Ex: The soldier was ~ wounded in the battle. forensics (n.) - the use of science and technology to investigate facts in criminal cases Ex: Advances in the study of ~ have made it much easier to identify criminals from very small traces of evidence. persist (v.) - to continue to exist; to hold to a purpose, despite any obstacle Ex: If your symptoms ~, you should go see a doctor. Ex: Lola ~+ in her efforts to become a lawyer. prognosis (n.) - an educated guess of how something will develop, especially a disease Ex: The room fell silent when the doctor gave Senator Grebe a grim ~ of months of treatment.

terminal (adj.) - located at an end; approaching death Ex: The cancer ward at the hospital held both ~ and recovering patients. vein (n.) - any of the tubes that form a branching system, especially those that carry blood to the heart Ex: She became fascinated with human anatomy, especially when she learned how ~+ transport oxygen. wound (v.) - to inflict an injury on Ex: Sometimes he didn't realize his sharp humor could ~ as well as entertain. anesthesia (n.) - techniques for reducing sensation and feeling, especially to control pain Ex: The Civil War was the first American war when ~ was widely used in surgery on soldiers. Usage Tips: ~ and ~+ are often used interchangeably. augment (v.) - to make bigger or better by adding to Ex: In some types of popular cosmetic surgery people ~ parts of their bodies. Ex: The college ~+ its course offerings because students complained that there were too few choices. certifiably (adv.) - in a manner that is officially recognized Ex: He couldn't be institutionalized until he was declared ~ insane. complication (n.) - a factor that makes something more difficult or complex Ex: The surgeons could not easily stop the bleeding because of ~+ related to the patient's diabetes. cure (v.) - to restore to health Ex: They say laughter can help ~ many illnesses. implant (v.) - to set in firmly; to insert in the body surgically Ex: The actress had cheek ~+ to make her face look fuller. inject (v.) - to insert a liquid by means of a syringe Ex: The doctor used a needle to ~ the medicine slowly into her arm. obese (adj.) - excessively overweight Ex: More Americans are ~ now because U.S. culture encourages overeating and discourages exercise. procedure (n.) - a specific way of performing or doing something Ex: The flight attendant explained the emergency evacuation ~.

scar (n.) - a mark on the skin left after a wound has healed; a lasting sign of damage, either mental or physical Ex: The surgery was successful, but it left a large ~ across her abdomen. astrological (adj.) - related to the study of the position of stars, the sun, and the planets in the belief that they influence earthly events Ex: Every day, Mona read her ~ forecast in the newspaper, and she was careful if the horoscope predicted trouble. divination (n.) - foretelling the future by finding patterns in physical objects Ex: In Turkey, women offer ~+ by reading the dregs from a coffee cup. haunt (v.) - to continually appear (in the form of a ghost) in the same place or to the same person Ex: Some say the ghost of Princess Hilda ~+ this castle, appearing as a headless form while she plays the piano. Ex: The pictures of children dying in war have ~+ me for a long time. horror (n.) - strong fear mixed with disgust Ex: On Halloween night, all the ~ movies were rented out. intermediary (n.) - acting as an agent between people or things Ex: The plaintiff's lawyer suggested that they hire an ~ to help them discuss their case. Usage Tips: ~ comes from the Latin words meaning "between the ways". invoke (v.) - to call on for support Ex: In many religions, believers ~ their god by holding out their hands. meditate (v.) - to reflect; to think quietly and deeply for a long time Ex: Every morning, the monks ~+ for three hours in complete silence. phantom (n.) - a dimly visible form, usually thought to be the spirit of a dead person, a sunken ship, etc. Ex: Many visitors reported seeing a ~ who appeared around the lake. psychic (adj.) - relating to the supposed ability of the human mind to sense things that cannot be observed Ex: The governor's assistant claimed to have unique ~ abilities enabling him to read people's minds. self-perpetuating (adj.) - having the power to renew oneself for an indefinite period of time Ex: It is difficult to escape from a lie, as they are often ~. assimilate (v.) - to consume and incorporate; to become similar

Ex: Not all of the overseas students could ~ into the rigidly controlled school. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by into. cremation (n.) - the act of burning the dead Ex: ~ is particularly common in Japan, where land for burial is very limited. domesticate (v.) - to make something suitable for being in a home (usually a plant or animal) Ex: The Barnes family hoped to ~ the tiger, but their neighbors were skeptical. Usage Tips: The object of ~ is usually a plant or animal. folklore (n.) - traditional myths of a people (beliefs, customs, and stories of a community) transmitted orally Ex: Through ~, archaeologists have learned about the migration of Native Americans in North America. fossilize (v.) - to become preserved in clay or stone or ash after death, so that a natural record is left of the original organism; to become rigid and stuck in old ways Ex: The dinosaur eggs had ~+ over thousands of years. relic (n.) - something left from a long-ago culture, time period, or person Ex: ~+ of the war can still be found in the sand dunes along this shore. rite (n.) - a ceremony meant to achieve a certain purpose Ex: Many cultures have fertility ~+ that supposedly make it more likely for women to bear children. ritually (adv.) - as part of a traditional ceremony or habit Ex: The children ~ kissed their parents on the cheek before bed. saga (n.) - a long story about important events long ago; a long story of heroic achievement Ex: Many American families tell ~+ about their ancestors' arrival in the United States. vestige (n.) - a visible trace that something once existed Ex: The wilted flowers were the only ~ of their romantic weekend. amend (v.) - to change for the better Ex: The residents voted to ~ their neighborhood policy on fences. biased (adj.) - leaning unfairly in one direction Ex: Her newspaper article was criticized for being heavily ~ toward the mayor's proposal. burden (n.) - something that is carried; a source of stress or worry Ex: The donkey walked slowly under the ~ of its heavy load. Ex: The failing company faced the ~ of bad debts and a poor reputation.

counter (v.) - to act in opposition to; to offer in response Ex: The hockey player ~+ the punch with a smashing blow from his hockey stick. Ex: Jane ~+ every accusation with a specific example of her achievements. de facto (adj.) - truly doing a job, even if not officially Ex: Popular support established the Citizens Party as the ~ government. discriminate (v.) - to choose carefully among options; make an unjust or prejudicial distinction in the treatment of different categories of people or things, esp. on the grounds of race, sex, or age Ex: The governor wisely ~+ between urgent issues and those that could wait. notion (n.) - A belief; a fanciful impulse, a conception of or belief about something; an impulse or desire, esp. one of a whimsical kind Ex: The ~ that older office equipment is unreliable is inaccurate. Ex: One morning, she suddenly took the ~ to paint her kitchen red. Usage Tips: ~ can be followed by a that clause or a to phrase. oppress (v.) - to keep down by force; to weigh heavily on, by the unjust exercise of authority Ex: Factory management ~+ workers through intimidation. paradigm (n.) - a pattern or model; a set of assumptions Ex: The usual ~ for economic growth in developed countries does not apply to some poor nations. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by for. prejudiced (adj.) - causing to judge prematurely and unfairly Ex: Many consumers are ~+ against commercial goods made in third-world countries. curriculum (n.) - the courses of study offered by an educational institution Ex: The teachers met to design a new ~ for the Intensive English Program. distinctly (adv.) - in a way that is readily distinguishable by the senses; clearly Ex: I ~ remember saying that we would meet at noon. erudite (adj.) - highly educated; having or showing great knowledge or learning Ex: Even though Stella was only a freshman, she was considered ~ by both her classmates and her professors. fortify (v.) - to strengthen; protect against attack Ex: The high-priced drink had extra vitamins and minerals to ~ the body. implicitly (adv.) - without being stated; unquestioningly; in a way that is not directly expressed

Ex: By joining the competition, she agreed ~ to the rules. parochial (adj.) - restricted in outlook; relating to the local parish; small-minded, provincial, narrow, small-town Ex: Marla moved from her rural community to get away from its ~ thinking. Ex: Sending your children to a ~ school can cost as much as sending them to college. rigor (n.) - strictness; difficult situations that come from following rules strictly Ex: The wrestler followed his diet with ~. Ex: The ~+ of military life toughened the young men quickly. roster (n.) - a list, especially of names Ex: Two of the names on the ~ were misspelled. secular (adj.) - worldly rather than spiritual; not related to religion Ex: Few private schools in the United States are ~. suspend (v.) - to cause to stop for a period; to hang as to allow free movement Ex: The trial was ~+ when the judge learned that one of the jury members knew the defense lawyer. Ex: The circus acrobat was ~+ in midair. allegiance (n.) - loyalty, commitment Ex: My ~ to my country is based on respect for its principles. Usage Tips: ~ is commonly followed by a to phrase. artillery (n.) - large guns that shoot powerful shells; army units that handle such guns Ex: An ~ barrage broke down the city's thick walls within seconds. Ex: The 47th ~ fired on rebels camped in the city center. Usage Tips: When it means a part of an army, ~ is sometimes plural. battle (v.) - to fight against Ex: The Viet Minh ~+ French forces at Dien Bien Phu for nearly two months in 1954. cease (v.) - stop Ex: The lightning continued even after the thunder had ~+. Usage Tips: ~ is found in official statements, not usually in everyday speech. hierarchy (n.) - a system of levels that places people high or low according to their importance Ex: Starting as a lowly private, Burt Jones gradually rose through the ~ of the army. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by an of phrase. in the trenches (adv'l.) - in the middle of the hardest fighting or work Ex: With their unrealistic view of this war, our generals don't know what things are like out ~.

Usage Tips: ~ creates an image of soldiers fighting in a long, dug-out place in the battlefield. mobilize (v.) - to put members of a group into motion Ex: After a terrible storm, the governor ~+ the National Guard to rescue victims. rank (v.) - to put into a many-leveled order, depending on importance or achievement Ex: The Marines ~+ Jim Hurst highest among all their officer candidates. ratio (n.) - the relationship of one number or amount to another Ex: Military analysts say that the ~ of attackers to defenders in a battle should be about three to one for the attackers to win. Usage Tips: ~ is very often followed by an of ... to structure. strategic (adj.) - related to long-term plans for achieving a goal Ex: United States has formed ~ friendships with Tajikistan and Mongolia to have Central Asian bases in the future. Usage Tips: ~ is often used with nouns for plans. annex (v.) - to make something (usually land) part of another unit Ex: Bardstown grew by ~+ several farms at the north edge of town. apex (n.) - the highest point Ex: Gregory knew that his running skills had to be at their ~ during the tournament. Usage Tips: ~ is often used to describe the high point of someone's abilities. collapse (v.) - to fall down, usually because of weakness Ex: The roof ~+ on top of me. conquest (n.) - a takeover by force or continued effort Ex: The first recorded ~ of Mt. Everest was by Tensing Norgay and Sir Edmund Hilary. Usage Tips: ~ is usually followed by an of phrase. devise (v.) - to find an original way to make an object or a plan Ex: The soldiers ~ a way to cross the river into enemy territory without being seen. invasive (adj.) - aggressively entering into someone else's territory Ex: Surgery with a laser is less ~ than surgery with a knife or scalpel. prevailing (adj.) - strongest or most common Ex: The ~ attitude among our neighbors is to be friendly but not too friendly. resist (v.) - to refuse to give in to a strong force or desire Ex: Although many native nations ~+, the U.S. government eventually took over almost all Indian land.

severely (adv.) - harshly; extremely Ex: Commanders ~ punished any soldier who criticized the battle plan. violation (n.) - an action that breaks a law or agreement; mistreatment of something that deserves respect Ex: The army's testing of new weapons was a ~ of the cease-fire agreement. Ex: The sculptures at Mt. Rushmore may be a ~ of sacred Indian land. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by an of phrase. chronologically (adv.) - in order according to time Ex: Allen's book is arranged ~, from the First Crusade in 1095 to the fall of Granada in 1492. Usage Tips: ~ is often used with arranged, organized, listed, or some other word for order. coincide (v.) - happen or exist at the same time Ex: The Viking attacks on western Europe ~+ with an abnormally warm period in the Earth's climate. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by a with phrase. consequence (n.) - a result, often one much later in time than the cause Ex: One ~ of global warming may be the flooding of low lying islands. Usage Tips: ~ usually implies something negative or serious about the result. core (n.) - an area or object at the center Ex: The ~ of India's film industry is in Bombay, where all but a few film studios are located. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by another noun (e.g., ~ principle) or by an of phrase. deny (v.) - say that something is not true Ex: Movie star Allen Butcher ~+ that he and the Princess of Denmark were getting married. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by the - ing form of a verb or by a that clause. diminish (v.) - make something smaller or weaker; become smaller or weaker Ex: The Protestant Reformation ~+ the power of the Roman Catholic Pope. Ex: Mr. Partridge's influence in the company ~+ after he relocated to a branch office. longitude (n.) - a system of imaginary lines running from north to south along the Earth's surface, where each line is numbered from 0° to 180° west or east Ex: The prime meridian, a line running through Greenwich, England, is marked as 0° ~. milieu (n.) - general environment or surroundings Ex: Many Vietnam veterans did not feel comfortable in the antiwar social ~ of the 1970s. Orwellian (adj.) - frightening and overcontrolled by a government that interferes in nearly every aspect of personal life

Ex: Biometric devices like eye-scanners allow an ~ level of government knowledge about everyone's location. reconciliation (n.) - coming back together peacefully after having been enemies Ex: South Africa avoided a bloodbath after apartheid by setting up a Truth and ~ Commission. allocate (v.) - to give out different amounts for different purposes Ex: The budget ~+ $58 billion to the military and only about $2 billion to education. Usage Tips: Things that can be ~+ are things that can be "spent"; money, time, energy, etc. commodity (n.) - a thing that can be bought and sold, such as grain, oil, or wood Ex: Tulip bulbs were one of the most valuable ~+ in seventeenth-century Holland. Usage Tips: A thing is called a ~ only in the context of buying or selling it. decline (v.) - to decrease in power or amount; politely refuse Ex: America's railroads ~+ because the automobile dominated American life. equity (n.) - the value of one's share in an investment Ex: Barnard's ~ in the business was one-third, or about $350,000. Usage Tips: In this meaning, ~ is always singular and usually followed by an in phrase. inflation (n.) - a situation in which prices for many items rise quite fast Ex: During the rapid ~ of the 1970s, prices for food and fuel sometimes rose 20 percent in a single month. net (adj.) - after all costs have been subtracted from an amount Ex: My gross salary is around $35,000, but my ~ pay is closer to $29,000. per capita (adv.) - for each person Ex: Research shows we're likely to sell 15 light bulbs ~ per year in medium-sized cities. regulate (v.) - control according to a set of rules Ex: Trading on the NewYork Stock Exchange is ~+ by officials of the exchange and by federal law. subsidy (n.) - money given by a government or other organization to support an activity Ex: Federal ~+ to grain farmers have helped them stay in business despite three years of bad weather. tangible (adj.) - obviously real because it can be seen, touched, or otherwise observed Ex: One ~ benefit of putting electrical cables underground is a clearer view of the sky. accumulate (v.) - to build up a large amount of something Ex: Over several generations, the Hardington family ~+ vast wealth by buying and selling land.

affluence (n.) - wealth and the style of life that goes with it Ex: Mohadzir grew up amid ~, which poorly prepared him for his grad student days in crowded apartments with no servants. elite (adj.) - belonging to a special, honored group; a group of people considered (by others or themselves) to be the best in a particular society or category, esp. because of their power, talent, or wealth Ex: Messner is an ~ climber who recently ascended an 8,000-meter mountain without extra oxygen. impoverish (v.) - to make a person or group poor Ex: The collapse of the steel industry ~+ several counties in eastern Ohio. luxury (n.) - extreme comfort, beyond what anyone needs Ex: Automakers try to give their cars an image of ~ by including extras like heated seats and satellite tracking systems. nobility (n.) - a group of socially prominent people with special titles given by a king or queen, such as "duke" or "countess" Ex: In the Middle Ages, the ~ supposedly followed a code that required them to take care of poorer people who lived near their estates. Usage Tips: ~ is used as a name for a group of distinguished people; it can also mean "a highly dignified form of behavior". prestige (n.) - honor and respect for being better than the average Ex: The Grassleys enjoyed the ~ of living in the historic town, but they did not feel at home there. privileged (adj.) - able to enjoy special advantages because of one's position (usually because of being born into a wealthy or powerful family); having special rights, advantages, or immunities Ex: Despite his ~+ position in one of America's most powerful families, the politician tried to portray himself as an ordinary person. prosper (v.) - to do very well in one's business or personal life Ex: Vargas ~+ after finally patenting his new inventions. Usage Tips: A person can ~; so can a group, a company, or an area. working class (n.) - people with low-paying (often unskilled) jobs who are not poor but who are not securely in the middle class Ex: The Farrelly family, like other members of the ~, were proud of their jobs and did not want any handouts from charity or the government. acquire (v.) - to get something, usually something with special value or meaning

Ex: Bart hoped to ~ the 1898 D Indian Head penny, which would make his collection complete. Usage Tips: Unlike get, ~ implies that a possession has special value or meaning. assess (v.) - to estimate the value of something Ex: The Barnes building was ~+ at $1.3 million, but it can probably sell for much more than that. asset (n.) - a possession that has positive value Ex: The school is a ~ to the community. Usage Tips: Some examples of ~+ are real estate, cash, and stock shares. hazardous (adj.) - dangerous Ex: Parents have to be careful not to buy children's clothes and toys made of ~ materials. jointly (adv.) - together with one or more other parties Ex: In most states, a husband and wife are assumed to own all their possessions ~. lease (v.) - to rent something for a long time (several months or years) Ex: Some drivers prefer to ~ a car rather than buy one. liability (n.) - Legal responsibility for harming a person or property; a person or thing whose presence or behavior is likely to cause embarrassment or put one at a disadvantage Ex: Before you go river rafting, you sign a document releasing the trip leaders from ~ in case of injury. Ex: Henderson is just a ~ to our work team, because he never finishes anything on time. Usage Tips: In its second meaning, ~ is often followed by a to phrase. proprietor (n.) - owner, usually of a business or a building Ex: The ~ of Hekman's Windows is Nels Hekman, grandson of the people who established the factory. Usage Tips: Very often, ~ is followed by an of phrase. safeguard (v.) - to protect ; protect from harm or damage with an appropriate measure: Ex: A burglar-alarm system ~+ our house when we go away on vacation. Usage Tips: ~ implies continuous protection over a long time. sole (adj.) - only Ex: Many people have wanted to invest in Harry's publishing business, but he remains the ~ owner. Usage Tips: ~ almost always appears before the noun it modifies. It does not come after a linking verb like be. compensate (v.) - to give an employee money or other things in exchange for the work he or she does

Ex: My pay doesn't properly ~ me for my efforts, but my other benefits, like health insurance, fill in the gap. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by a for phrase. dynamic (adj.) - full of energy, activity, or progress Ex: This job requires a ~ person, someone who will look for opportunities instead of just waiting around for them. enterprising (adj.) - creative in thinking of ways to make money Ex: Immigrants are often among the most ~ members of society, partly because anyone brave enough to make an overseas move is likely to be a risk-taker. Usage Tips: There is no verb "to ~+". exploit (v.) - to take advantage of; to treat inconsiderately in order to profit; make full use of and derive benefit from (a resource) Ex: The company tried to ~ the low interest rates to expand operations. Usage Tips: The foreign mining company ~+ our copper resources and then simply left. incentive (n.) - a possible benefit that motivates a person to do a certain thing Ex: This city's willingness to support its public schools gave us an ~ to move here with our two young children. Usage Tips: ~ is usually followed by a to phrase. industrious (adj.) - willing to work hard Ex: The Dutch settlements in Ottawa County were founded by ~ farmers who objected to frivolous behavior such as dancing. Usage Tips: Only people can be ~; companies cannot. marginal (adj.) - not very significant or effective Ex: Our new advertising campaign had only ~ success, raising sales by a mere 3 percent. merit (n.) - value; success based on one's work, not on luck Ex: Pay raises at our company are based on ~, as determined by a committee of managers. Usage Tips: ~ is uncountable. promote (v.) - to move someone to a higher position in a company Ex: Because of his excellent handling of the Vredeman account, Jim Harris was ~+ to vice president. Usage Tips: ~ is very often followed by a to phrase indicating the position one has been moved up to. resign (v.) - to quit one's job Ex: Because of controversy over his leadership style, Morton ~+ from his job as president.

distill (v.) - to remove one liquid from a mixture of liquids by boiling; to get something valuable from a confusing mix of ideas Ex: The forest peoples of Southeast Asia ~ an alcoholic drink called arak from a paste of palm berries. Ex: Most students are confused by her lectures, but Joe can always ~ her main idea. entrepreneurial (adj.) - able to create business opportunities from a wide variety of circumstances Ex: Many engineers of the 1970s made great computers, but only a few were ~ enough to see the business possibilities in the new machines. extract (v.) - to take out Ex: International mining companies came to the Malay Peninsula to ~ the region's massive tin deposits. haggle (v.) - To argue back and forth about a price Ex: The customer and the shopkeeper ~+ over the silver plate for more than an hour. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by a phrase with over or about. intrepid (adj.) - fearless Ex: For nearly 200 years, only the most ~ colonists would cross the Appalachian Mountains. merchant (n.) - a person who makes a living by selling things Ex: The spice ~+ of the eastern markets charged top prices to the Dutch and British sailors, who had come too far to sail away without buying. Usage Tips: The word ~ might be preceded by another noun telling what the ~ sells (e.g., spice ~ or wine ~). proportionately (adv.) - in an amount appropriate to each of several recipients Ex: The food aid was distributed ~ per family, with larger families receiving more. prototype (n.) - the first one made of a machine or system Ex: The airplane manufacturer uses robots to test every ~, just in case there is a problem with the design. reward (n.) - something one gets for having done well Ex: The greatest ~ of being a parent is to see your child make a wise decision. Usage Tips: ~ might be followed by an of or for phrase naming what one has done well. shuttle (v.) - to move back and forth often between two places Ex: The small jet ~+ between Kuala Lumpur and Singapore nearly every two hours. advocate (v.) - to speak out in favor of something; publicly recommend or support Ex: Some environmentalists ~ removing large dams from the Columbia River.

Usage Tips: ~ is usually followed by a term for a process or action, very often the - ing form of a verb authority (n.) - the power to make decisions, to tell others what to do. Ex: The governor has the ~ to call the legislature together for emergency sessions. Usage Tips: A to phrase often follows ~. bitterly (adv.) - strongly and with a lot of bad feelings Ex: Senator Thomas ~ opposed the movement to design a new state flag. candidate (n.) - someone who wants to be chosen, especially in an election, for a position Ex: In most U.S. elections, there are only two major-party candidates for president. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by a for phrase. coalition (n.) - a group of several different groups or countries that are working together to achieve a certain goal. Ex: Several local churches, mosques, synagogues, and temples formed a ~ to promote understanding among people of different religions. contest (v.) - to challenge; oppose (an action, decision, or theory) as mistaken or wrong Ex: Dave Roper, who narrowly lost the mayor's race, ~+ the results, demanding a recount of the votes. Usage Tips: The noun ~ can mean a game, especially one played for a prize. election (n.) - a process in which people choose officials Ex: Because of problems with vote-counting four years ago, international observers monitored this year's ~ to make sure it was fair. inaugurate (v.) - to bring into public office; to start formally Ex: The U.S. president is elected in November but is not ~+ until the following January. Ex: An effort to bring electric service to farms and small towns was ~+ with the Rural Electrification Act of 1936. Usage Tips: When it means "bring into public office," ~ is usually in the passive voice. policy (n.) - an approved way for approaching a certain kind of situation Ex: The ~ said that government money could not be given to any private hospital. poll (v.) - to find out a small group's opinion so that you can guess what a much larger group thinks Ex: The newspaper ~+ 500 registered voters and found that only 27 percent were in favor of expanding the city zoo. accuse (v.) - to say that someone did something wrong (e.g., committed a crime)

Ex: Jordan was ~+ of using a stolen credit card to buy about $300 worth of electronic equipment. Usage Tips: ~ is often used in the passive voice. allegedly (adv.) - according to what people say, although there is no proof Ex: The chief financial officer of the company ~ took company money for his personal use. civil (adj.) - involving a dispute between two citizens, not a criminal charge Ex: in a ~ suit against his neighbor, Barney claimed that the neighbor's dog had bitten him. Usage Tips: In a court context, ~ almost always appears in one of the following phrases: ~ suit, ~ action, ~ court, ~ proceedings, and ~ penalties. convict (v.) - to decide that someone is guilty of a crime; declare (someone) to be guilty of a criminal offense Ex: Dean was ~+ of assault after the jury saw a video of him striking another man. Usage Tips: ~ is often used in the passive voice. guilty (adj.) - responsible for doing something bad Ex: The jury found that the director was ~ of embezzlement. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by an of phrase that names a crime or bad deed. offense (n.) - a specific act that breaks the law Ex: Convicted twice of reckless driving, Victor will lose his license if he commits another serious traffic ~. peer (n.) - a person who is one's social equal; a person of the same age, status, or ability as another specified person Ex: In requiring judgment by "a jury of one's ~+," U.S. law meant to protect lower-class defendants from the possibly biased judgment of upper-class juries. suspect (n.) - someone who, in the opinion of the police, might have committed a certain crime Ex: The police were investigating the activities of five ~+ in the liquor-store robbery. verdict (n.) - a judgment in a court case Ex: It took the jury only 30 minutes to reach a ~ of "guilty." Usage Tips: ~ is often the object of the verbs reach or arrive at. witness (v.) - to see something, especially a crime, happen Ex: After ~+ the car theft, Rodney called the police. apprehend (v.) - to capture; understand or perceive Ex: The police ~+ the robbery suspect as he tried to get on a bus to Chicago. ascertain (v.) - to make sure of

Ex: The police failed to ~ that the man they arrested was the Gregory Brown they were really looking for. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by a that clause. bureaucratic (adj.) - related to a large organization with a lot of complicated procedures Ex: Before I could speak with the chief, I had to go through a ~ run around of identity checks and written requests. Usage Tips: ~ implies that something is inefficient and unnecessarily complicated. condemn (v.) - to speak out against something in very strong terms; express complete disapproval of Ex: Religious radicals ~+ the government for allowing alcohol to be sold in restaurants. evidence (n.) - something that makes the truth of a statement seem more likely Ex: The most convincing ~ that Garner robbed the store was a videotape from surveillance cameras. implicate (v.) - to suggest that someone was involved in a crime or other wrong behavior; convey (a meaning or intention) indirectly through what one says Ex: No group claimed responsibility for the bombing, but the type of explosive used ~+ the Heartland Freedom Militia. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by in. inquiry (n.) - an investigation; an act of asking for information Ex: The FBI launched an ~ into the relationship between organized crime and the trucking company. intrusively (adv.) - in a way that brings an unwanted person or thing into someone else's affairs Ex: The new consultant from company headquarters appeared ~ at meetings, staff parties, and other functions where he was not wanted. seize (v.) - to take something against its owner's will Ex: Federal agents can ~ private homes and other property possibly used in the production or sale of illegal drugs. surveillance (n.) - a process of watching something or someone for a long time, usually because the person is suspected of something Ex: Police ~ of one suspected car thief resulted in the arrest of a whole gang of carjackers. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by an of phrase. analyze (v.) - to examine something by looking at its parts Ex: Chemists ~+ the white powder and found it to be only a mixture of sugar and salt. assail (v.) - to attack or criticize forcefully

Ex: With DNA evidence from the crime scene, the defense lawyer ~+ the police for falsely arresting his client. contrary (adj.) - opposite Ex: ~ to most studies, Dr. Ito's work shows the world's climate is not getting warmer. Usage Tips: Common phrases are ~ to and on the ~. hypothesize (v.) - to make a guess, the correctness of which will eventually be investigated systematically. Ex: Scientists ~ that planets capable of supporting life exist beyond our solar system, but they have not yet seen any. Usage Tips: ~ is often followed by a that clause. impair (v.) - to make something less effective than usual Ex: The snow ~+ John's ability to hear anyone's footsteps. Usage Tips: The object of ~ is often [someone's] ability to. inference (n.) - a conclusion drawn from evidence Ex: Inspector Dowd's ~ that Ms. Miller was South African was based on her accent. objectively (adv.) - based on unbiased standards, not on personal opinion Ex: I don't like Mr. Rowan, but looking ~ at his sales numbers, I saw that he was a very valuable employee. suspicious (adj.) - believing that something is wrong; acting in a way that makes people believe you have done something wrong Ex: The neighbors became ~ of Jim when he bought a big new car and some fancy clothes. Ex: Jim's ~ purchases made his neighbors think he might be getting money illegally. tolerate (v.) - to avoid getting upset about something Ex: My math teacher ~+ a lot of talking in her class, but my history teacher tells us to be quiet. versus (prep.) - against (esp. in sports and legal use) Ex: In the debate, it was pro-war senators ~ antiwar senators. Usage Tips: ~ is often abbreviated as ~+ in sports contexts, or simply ~+ in legal contexts. bribery (n.) - giving money or other gifts to a government official or other person in authority in order to get special privileges Ex: ~ of police officers is common in countries where police salaries are very low. cynically (adv.) - disrespectfully; emphasizing the weaknesses of otherwise respected things Ex: Employees of the Roadways Department ~ referred to their boss as "the banker" because he took so many bribes.