Physiology of the endocrine system, Study Guides, Projects, Research of English Literature

Download Physiology of the endocrine system and more Study Guides, Projects, Research English Literature in PDF only on Docsity! 1. Physiology of the endocrine system The endocrine system consists of cells, tissues, and organs that produce hormones or other chemical substances. Whereas the parts of nervous system communicate with various cells by means of nerve impulses carried on nerve fibers, the parts of the endocrine system use hormones that act as chemical messengers to their target cells. The organs of endocrine system act together to control body activities and maintain homeostasis. In most people, the pancreas, the adrenal, pituitary, thyroid, and parathyroid glands, and ovaries or testicles work in tandem. The endocrine system regulates various functions of a human organism. It functions as a control system for the human body. Unlike other organs and body parts that enable to move, breathe, eat, or sense the world around us, the endocrine system influences the body's processes. Along with nervous system, it coordinates the body's activities and responses to usual and unusual events. Although both the endocrine system and the nervous system regulate the activities of structures in the body, they do so in different ways. These two systems cannot be separated completely either anatomically or functionally. For example, some hormones secreted by endocrine glands affect the nervous system and markedly influence its activity. The key mechanism of the endocrine system is the hormone. Different types of endocrine hormones are secreted by different glands (pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, pancreas, adrenal glands, gonads: ovaries and testicles, pineal gland, and thymus gland). Most of these hormones are released into the bloodstream so that they can deliver instructions to various organs and tissues. The pancreas, for example, secretes the insulin hormone, which enables the body to regulate the amount of sugar in the bloodstream. In response to stress or other stimuli, the adrenal glands secrete adrenaline, which produces a sudden and remarkable burst of energy. Similarly, the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, and gonadal glands influence certain body functions. Glands, which send the chemical substances into ducts leading to external body surfaces, are called exocrine glands. They are mammary, salivary, lacrimal and sweat glands. A hormone is an organic substance with a special molecular structure secreted by definite cells that has an effect on the function of another cells. Although hormones circulate throughout the body via the bloodstream, each hormone influences on only certain organs (target organs) or tissues. So, several types of chemicals are produced by cells and act as chemical messengers, but not all of them are hormones. Hormones are proteins, glycoproteins, polypeptides, derivatives of amino acids, or lipids (steroids or derivatives of fatty acids). As a rule, the greater the amount of a particular hormone in the bloodstream, the greater activity of the target organ. Some hormones (such as several of those produced by the pituitary gland) control other glandular activity, but virtually every system in the body is subject to the influence of the hormones, either directly or indirectly.   2. Endocrine system as a part of the human body  The pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is known to secrete some major hormones (e. g. antidiuretic hormone, growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, lipotropins, prolactin) that directly regulate numerous body functions and the secretory activity of several other endocrine glands. The hypothalamus of the brain regulates the secretory activity of the pituitary gland, and, in turn, the activity of the hypothalamus is influenced by the central nervous system, and by the emotional state of the individual. The hypothalamus and pituitary gland are the major sites in which the two regulatory systems of the body (the nervous and endocrine systems) interact. Indeed, a major portion of the pituitary gland (the posterior pituitary) is an extension of the hypothalamus. As for pituitary gland, it is roughly 1 cm in diameter and weighs 0.5 to 1 g. The pituitary gland is located inferior to the hypothalamus. It is divided functionally into two parts (posterior pituitary gland and anterior pituitary gland). The thyroid gland is composed of two lobes connected by a narrow band of thyroid tissue. The lobes are lateral to the upper portion of the trachea just inferior to the larynx.The thyroid gland is one of the largest endocrine glands with a weight of approximately 20 g. It is highly vascular and appears redder than its surrounding tissues. The thyroid hormones include both triiodothyronine (3) and tetraiodothyronine (T4); T4 is also called thyroxine. These substances constitute the major secretory products of the thyroid gland, with 10 % T3 and 90 % T4. Thyroid hormones bind with intracellular receptor molecules and initiate new protein synthesis. The adrenal glands are near the top of each kidney. Like kidneys, they lie posterior to the parietal peritoneum and are surrounded by adipose tissue. They are enclosed by a connective tissue capsule and receive a well-developed blood supply. The adrenal glands are composed of an inner medulla and an outer cortex, which are derived from two separate embryonic tissues. Unlike most glands of the body, which develop from epithelial tissue, the adrenal cortex is derived from mesoderm. The adrenal medulla is a component of the autonomic nervous system and secretes two types of hormones: epinephrine (adrenaline), 80%, and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), 20%. The adrenal cortex secretes three hormone types: mineralocorticosteroids, glucocorticoids, and sex hormones. All are similar in structure in that they are steroids, highly specialized lipids that are derived from cholesterol. The pancreas lies behind the peritoneum between stomach and the duodenum. It is elongated structure approximately 15 cm long. It weighs 85 to 100 g. The head of the pancreas lies near the duodenum, and its body and tail extend toward the spleen. The pancreas plays a key part in the digestive process, producing enzymes essential to the digestion of food. The pancreas is both an exocrine gland and endocrine gland. The endocrine portion, consisting of pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans), produces hormones that enter the circulatory system. Each islet is composed of alpha cells (20 %), which secrete glucagons, beta cells (75 %), which secrete insulin, and other cell types (5 %). The remaining cells are either immature cells of questionable function or delta cells, which secrete somatostatin. 3. Functions of hormones  The secretory products of endocrine glands are hormones. Traditionally a hormone is defined as a substance that is produced in minute amounts by a collection of cells, is secreted into the interstitial spaces, enters the circulatory system on which it is transported some distance, and acts on specific tissues called target tissues at another site in the body to influence the tissues' activity. Hyperthyroidism occurs when the thyroid gland produces excessive amounts of thyroid hormone. The signs of this disorder are the following: weight loss despite increased appetite increased heart rate and blood pressure, nervousness, swelling at the base of the neck (golter), increases in the frequency of bowel movements, sometimes diarrhea, and muscle weakness. Three types of treatment are available: a liquid form of radioactive iodine, an an-tithyroid medication, and surgery. An underactive thyroid gland causes hypothyroidism. This disorder can occur in either sex and at any age. However middle-aged women are most commonly affected. The key treatment is daily consumption of thyroid hormone. Physicians generally prescribe a synthetic thyroxine. The individual must continue this treatment for the rest of his or her life. The hormones of the adrenal glands affect virtually every system in the body to some degree. Their effects are complex. Disturbances can occur in this intricate system, leading to such disorders as Addison's disease, aldosteronoma, congenital adrenal hyperplasia and others. Symptoms result from the release of large amounts of epinephrine and norepinephrine and include weight loss, darkening of the skin, sweating, nervousness, and tachycardia. Treatment requires daily doses of steroid tablets and salt supplements. Sometimes the pancreas' balanced system of control fails. The amount of glucose in the bloodstream increases. The result is hyperglycemia. This condition is easily diagnosed by measuring the concentration of glucose in the blood. If it is high enough, some glucose will spill into the urine, where it can be detected easily. When the body's cells are unable to use the glucose in the bloodstream because of a lack of insulin activity (absence of enough hormone or resistance to the hormone), diabetes mellitus results. It is very serious disease but modern medications have made possible the effective management of diabetes 6. Diseases of the endocrine system  The endocrine system consists of glands that produce hormones regulating various functions of the body. Diseases of the endocrine system often involve the overproduction or underproduction of hormones, or problems with hormone receptors. Here are some common endocrine disorders: 1. Diabetes Mellitus: - Type 1 Diabetes: An autoimmune condition where the immune system attacks insulin- producing beta cells in the pancreas. - Type 2 Diabetes: Characterized by insulin resistance and eventual insulin deficiency. 2. Thyroid Disorders: - Hypothyroidism: The thyroid gland produces insufficient thyroid hormones. Common causes include Hashimoto's thyroiditis. - Hyperthyroidism: The thyroid gland produces excessive thyroid hormones. Common causes include Graves' disease. 3. Adrenal Disorders: - Cushing's Syndrome: Caused by excessive cortisol production, often due to a pituitary tumor. - Addison's Disease: Results from insufficient production of cortisol and aldosterone, often due to adrenal gland damage. 4. Pituitary Disorders: - Acromegaly: Caused by excess growth hormone, usually due to a benign pituitary tumor. - Hypopituitarism: Reduced hormone production by the pituitary gland. 5. Parathyroid Disorders: - Hyperparathyroidism: Excessive production of parathyroid hormone, leading to high calcium levels in the blood. - Hypoparathyroidism: Insufficient production of parathyroid hormone, leading to low calcium levels. 6. Pancreatic Disorders: - Insulinoma: A rare tumor of the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas, causing hypoglycemia. 7. Reproductive Gland Disorders: - Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS): Characterized by hormonal imbalance in women, leading to irregular menstrual cycles and other symptoms. - Hypogonadism: Reduced function of the gonads, leading to decreased production of sex hormones. These conditions often require lifelong management and can have significant impacts on health and quality of life. Diagnosis typically involves hormone level testing, imaging studies, and sometimes genetic testing. Treatment may include hormone replacement therapy, medications to balance hormone levels, surgery, and lifestyle changes. 7. Diabetes Mellitus  Scientists consider ( розглядають ) the diabetes mellitus to occur as a result of inadequate secretion of insulin or the inability ( неспроможність ) of tissues to respond to insulin. Thus, when body's cells are unable to use the glucose in the bloodstream because of a lack of insulin activity, diabetes mellitus occurs. Insulin hyposecretion is usually caused by degeneration of the beta cells in the pancreatic islets. There are two types of diabetes mellitus: insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM). Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus is also known as type I, juvenile ( подросток) or juvenile- onset diabetes. Terms used for NIDDM include adult-onset, stable, and type II diabetes. Juvenile-onset diabetes usually develops in young people. It is caused ( це спричинено ) by diminished ( зниженою ) insulin secretion. It is not clear if heredity ( спадковість) plays a major role in its onset, but viral infection of the pancreatic islets ( острівець) may be involved. NIDDM develops in older people and often does not result from a lack of insulin but from the inability of the tissues to respond insulin. The symptoms associated with diabetes mellitus are increased thirst,( спрага) increased urination, fatigue,( втома) nausea,( нудить) vomiting,(рвота) skin infections, and bladder infections. These symptoms are the consequence(наслідки) of the abnormal metabolism of nutrients, which is caused by diminished insulin secretion or a decreased number of insulin receptors. In patients with diabetes melitus nutrients are absorbed from the intestine after a meal, but without insulin skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, the liver and other target tissues do not readily take glucose into their cells. Consequently, blood level of glucose increases dramatically. Diabetes mellitus often is treated by administration of insulin by injection. Insulin is extracted from sheep or pork pancreatic tissue. Genetic engineering currently ( в теперішній час) is used to synthesize human insulin. In some cases diabetes mellitus can be treated by administering drugs that stimulate beta cells to secrete more insulin. This treatment is effective only if an adequate number of functional beta cells is present in the islets of Langerhans. Too much insulin or too little food intake after an injection of insulin by a diabetic patient causes insulin shock. The high level of insulin causes target tissues ( цільові тканини) to take up glucose at a very high rate. As a result, blood glucose levels rapidly (швидко ) fall to a low level. Since the nervous system depends on glucose as its major source of energy, neurons malfunction because of a lack of metabolic energy. As the blood glucose level decreases, the concentration of fatty acids increases in the blood, resulting in a decrease in the blood pH, which also causes nerve cells to malfunction. The result is a series of nervous system malfunctions that include disorientation, confusion, and convulsions. 8. Diabetes type II  Type 2 diabetes is high blood sugar levels due to your body not making enough of a hormone called insulin, or the insulin it makes not working properly ( відповідно)  — known as  insulin resistance. Symptoms of type 2 diabetes often develop slowly. In fact, you can be living with type 2 diabetes for years and not know it. When symptoms are present, they may include: • Increased thirst. ( спрага ) • Frequent urination. • Increased hunger. • Unintended ( непередбачуванний) weight loss. • Fatigue. ( нудить) • Blurred vision. • Slow-healing sores. ( виразки) • Frequent infections. • Numbness or tingling in the hands or feet. ( оніміння чи поколювання ) • Areas of darkened skin, usually in the armpits and neck. 11. Brain. Spinal cord  BRAIN The brain is the part of the CNS located within the cranial vault.( сховище) The major regions of the adult brain are the cerebrum, the thalamus and hypothalamus, midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata, and cerebellum. The brain works to analyze bits of information before transmitting these messages throughout the body. These messages affect functions such as coordination, learning, memory, emotion, and thought. The scientists determined ( визначили) the brain was composed ( складений of approximately 100 billion neurons, their connections, and supporting cells, which add up to approximately 3 pounds of tissue. This dense ( щільний) network of interconnected ( взаємопов’язані) neurons is organized to convey ( передати) all the control signals necessary ( необхідні) for individual activities. The brain is connected to the spinal cord by the brain stem, which is composed of the medulla, the pons, and midbrain. The brain stem controls many of the vital functions, ( життєві функції) such as breathing and circulation of blood. Cranial nerves exit from the brain stem to control muscles of the face, eyes, tongue, ears, and throat. They also convey sensations from these parts back to the brain. The cerebrum consists of thick masses ( товстих мас) of nerve tissue. It is divided ( поділити) into two sides (cereberal hemispheres). Conscious functions such as speech, memory, and vision are controlled in the cerebral hemispheres( півкулі) . Specific areas within these hemispheres are responsible ( відповідальний ) for certain functions, such as speech and the control of muscles in particular parts of the body. In general, control of the muscles of the right side of the body is in the left hemisphere of the brain, and muscles of the left side of the body are controlled by the right hemisphere of the brain. The linking of higher brain functions with cerebral areas is a very active field of research. The other major portion of the brain, the cerebellum, is located beneath ( під) the cerebral hemispheres. It helps control the coordination. At the core ( в основі) of the brain, atop the brain stem, there are other key areas, including thalamus and hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is an endocrine regulatory center that affects sleep and appetite. The thalamus is a collection of nerve cells whose function is the transmission of many of the sensations. In addition, ( додатково) the centers under the cortex play critical roles in relaying messages between different areas of the brain. SPINAL CORD The spinal cord is extremely important to the overall function of the nervous system. It is the communication link between the brain and the peripheral nervous system inferior to the head, integrating incoming information and producing responses through reflex mechanisms. The spinal cord extends ( розпочинається) from the foramen magnum to the level of the second lumbar vertebra. It is shorter than the vertebral column because it does not grow as rapidly ( швидко) as the vertebral column during embryonic development. It is composed of cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral segments, which are named according to the area of the vertebral column from which their nerves enter and exit. Because the spinal cord is shorter than the vertebral column, the nerves do not always exit the vertebral column at the same level that they exit the spinal cord. Thirty-one pairs of the spinal nerves exit the spinal cord and pass out of the vertebral column through the intervertebral foramina. The spinal cord is not uniform in diameter throughout its length. There is a general decrease in diameter superiorly to inferiorly, and there are two enlargements where nerves supplying the limbs enter and leave the cord. The cervical enlargement in the inferior cervical region corresponds ( відповідає ) to the location at which nerves that supply the upper limbs enter or exit the cord, and the lumbosacral enlargement in the inferior thoracic and superior lumbar regions is the site at which the nerves that supply the lower limbs enter or exit. Immediately ( безпосередньо ) inferior to the lumbar enlargement the spinal cord tapers to ( звужується) form a conelike region called the conus medullaris. Its tip is at the level of the second lumbar vertebra and is the inferior end of the spinal cord. A connective tissue filament, the filum terminale, extends inferiorly from the apex of the conus medullaris to the coccyx and functions to anchor the cord to the coccyx. The nerves supplying the legs and other inferior structures of the body (L2 (L-lumbar) to S5 (S-sacral)) exit the lumbar enlargement and conus medullaris, course inferiorly through the vertebral canal, and exit through the intervertebral foramina from L2 to S5. The conus medullaris and the numerous nerves extending inferiorly from it resemble ( нагадує ) a horse's tail and are therefore (тому) called the cauda equina. 12. Brain & spinal cord activity BRAIN The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord: 1) The brain controls how we think, learn, move, and feel. 2) The spinal cord carries messages back and forth between the brain and the nerves that run throughout the body. The brain is like a central computer that controls all the body's functions. It is in charge of what we think and feel, how we learn and remember, and the way we move and talk. It also controls things we're less aware of ( менше знаємо) — like the beating of our hearts and the digestion of our food. The brain sends messages back and forth with the body. These messages travel through the spinal cord. The cerebrum is the biggest part of the brain. A large part of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex (also known as "gray matter"). The cortex has four areas called lobes that work together to create a person's personality and everything they know. Each lobe processes a different kind of information:  The frontal lobe is involved ( залучени) in complex thinking, like planning, imagining, making decisions, and reasoning. It's located behind the forehead. (лоб)  The parietal lobe processes information about touch, taste, and temperature. It's behind the frontal lobe.  The temporal lobe lets us understand sounds and language, recognize objects and faces, and create memories. It's near the ears.  The occipital lobe processes light and other visual information from the eyes, letting us know what we're seeing. It's in the rear part of the brain. The cerebrum has two halves,( половинки) called hemispheres. A band of nerve fibers (the corpus callosum) connects them in the middle, which lets them exchange information.  The left hemisphere controls the movements of the right side of the body.  The right hemisphere of the brain controls the movements of the left side of the body. The brainstem connects the brain and the spinal cord. It is made up of the pons, the medulla , and the midbrain. These parts work together to control and coordinate the messages going in and out of the brain. The brainstem also controls many body functions that we often don’t think about — like breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, swallowing, and digestion. The Cerebellum Behind the cerebrum is the cerebellum. The cerebellum — also called the "little brain" because it looks like a small version of the cerebrum — is responsible for balance, movement, and coordination. Other Structures in the Brain Many other smaller parts of the brain do important jobs, including:  The thalamus, which receives messages about the senses, like vision, hearing, and touch coming from the eyes, ears, and fingers.  The hypothalamus, which controls the pulse, thirst, ( спрага) appetite, sleep patterns, and other processes that happen automatically.  The pituitary gland, which makes hormones that control growth, metabolism, water and mineral balance, sexual maturity, and response to stress. SPINAL CORD Your spinal cord’s main purpose ( головна мета) is to carry ( нести) nerve signals throughout your body. These nerve messages have three crucial functions. They:  Control body movements and functions.  Signals from your brain to other body parts control your movements. They also direct autonomic (involuntary) functions like your breathing rate and heartbeat , as well as bowel and bladder function.  Report senses to your brain.  Signals from other parts of your body help your brain record and process sensations like pressure or pain.  Manage your reflexes. Your spinal cord controls some reflexes (involuntary movements) without involving your brain. For example, your spinal cord manages your patellar reflex (involuntarily moving your leg when someone taps your shin in a certain spot). 13. Diseases of the nervous system  14. Nervous system maladies  Nervous system maladies ( хвороби) include a range of conditions affecting the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves, disrupting normal functions and causing various health issues. Common diseases are Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, and stroke. Alzheimer's disease leads to memory loss and cognitive decline. Parkinson's disease is marked by tremors, stiffness, and balance problems. Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disorder that damages nerve coverings, causing fatigue and muscle weakness. Epilepsy involves recurrent seizures due to abnormal brain activity. Stroke occurs when blood supply to the brain is interrupted, resulting in sudden loss of function, paralysis, and speech difficulties. Symptoms of these diseases can include memory loss, tremors, muscle weakness, seizures, and chronic pain. Diagnosis involves medical history, neurological exams, and imaging tests like MRI or CT scans. Genetic testing may also be needed. Treatment varies by condition and may include medications, physical therapy, and surgery. Захворювання нервової системи включають низку станів, що впливають на мозок, спинний мозок і периферичні нерви, порушуючи нормальні функції та викликаючи різні проблеми зі здоров’ям. Поширеними захворюваннями є хвороба Альцгеймера, Паркінсона, розсіяний склероз, епілепсія та інсульт. Хвороба Альцгеймера призводить до втрати пам'яті та зниження когнітивних функцій. Хвороба Паркінсона характеризується тремором, скутістю та проблемами рівноваги. Розсіяний склероз - це аутоімунне захворювання, яке пошкоджує нервові оболонки, викликаючи втому та м'язову слабкість. Епілепсія включає повторювані напади внаслідок аномальної активності мозку. Інсульт виникає, коли кровопостачання мозку переривається, що призводить до раптової втрати функцій, паралічу та труднощів з промовою. Симптоми цих захворювань можуть включати втрату пам’яті, тремор, м’язову слабкість, судоми та хронічний біль. Діагностика включає історію хвороби, неврологічне обстеження та візуалізаційні тести, такі як МРТ або КТ. Також може знадобитися генетичне тестування. Лікування залежить від стану та може включати медикаменти, фізіотерапію та хірургічне втручання. 15. The physiology and functions of urinary system  The urinary system plays a crucial role in maintaining the body’s internal environment by regulating the volume and composition of blood, excreting waste products, and maintaining ( підримання) electrolyte balance. It consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra, each contributing (сприяє) to the system’s overall function. The kidneys are the primary organs of the urinary system, located on either side of the spine just below the ribcage. They filter blood to remove waste products and excess substances, forming urine. Each kidney contains about a million nephrons, which are the functional units responsible for the filtration process. Blood enters the kidneys through the renal arteries, is filtered in the nephrons, and leaves the kidneys through the renal veins. Once urine is formed in the kidneys, it travels through the ureters, two thin tubes that connect the kidneys to the bladder. The bladder is a muscular sac that stores urine until it is ready to be expelled (вигнали) from the body. When the bladder fills,( наповненний) stretch receptors in its walls trigger the urge to urinate. During urination, the bladder contracts, and urine is expelled through the urethra, a tube that leads from the bladder to the outside of the body. The urinary system also plays a significant role in regulating blood pressure, red blood cell production, and maintaining pH balance. The kidneys produce hormones such as renin, which helps regulate blood pressure, and erythropoietin, which stimulates red blood cell production in the bone marrow. Additionally, the kidneys help maintain the body's acid-base balance by excreting hydrogen ions and reabsorbing bicarbonate from urine. Overall, the urinary system is essential for removing waste products from the bloodstream, maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance, and regulating vital physiological processes. Its efficient functioning is critical for overall health and homeostasis. Сечовидільна система відіграє вирішальну роль у підтримці внутрішнього середовища організму, регулюючи об’єм і склад крові, виводячи продукти розпаду та підтримуючи електролітний баланс. Він складається з нирок, сечоводів, сечового міхура та уретри, кожен з яких сприяє загальній функції системи. Нирки є основними органами сечовидільної системи, розташованими по обидва боки від хребта трохи нижче грудної клітки. Вони фільтрують кров для видалення відходів і надлишку речовин, утворюючи сечу. Кожна нирка містить близько мільйона нефронів, які є функціональними одиницями, відповідальними за процес фільтрації. Кров надходить у нирки по ниркових артеріях, фільтрується в нефронах і виходить з нирок по ниркових венах. Коли сеча утворюється в нирках, вона проходить через сечоводи, дві тонкі трубки, які з’єднують нирки з сечовим міхуром. Сечовий міхур - це м'язовий мішок, який зберігає сечу, поки вона не буде готова до викиду з організму. Коли сечовий міхур наповнюється, рецептори розтягування в його стінках викликають позив до сечовипускання. Під час сечовипускання сечовий міхур скорочується, і сеча виділяється через уретру, трубку, яка веде від сечового міхура до зовнішньої частини тіла. Сечовидільна система також відіграє важливу роль у регулюванні артеріального тиску, виробленні еритроцитів і підтримці рН-балансу. Нирки виробляють такі гормони, як ренін, який допомагає регулювати артеріальний тиск, і еритропоетин, який стимулює вироблення еритроцитів у кістковому мозку. Крім того, нирки допомагають підтримувати кислотно- лужний баланс організму, виводячи іони водню та реабсорбуючи бікарбонат із сечі. Загалом сечовидільна система має важливе значення для видалення відходів із кровотоку, підтримки балансу рідини та електролітів і регулювання життєво важливих фізіологічних процесів. Його ефективне функціонування має вирішальне значення для загального здоров’я та гомеостазу. АБО Симптоми включають зміни виділення сечі, кров у сечі, набряк, втома, нудоту та утруднене дихання. Діагностика передбачає такі тести, як аналіз сечі, аналіз крові, візуалізація та іноді біопсія. Лікування різне, але може включати прийом ліків, зміну способу життя, діаліз або трансплантацію. Профілактика зосереджена на здоровому способі життя, лікуванні основних захворювань, гідратації та уникненні шкідливих речовин. Раннє виявлення та лікування мають вирішальне значення для лікування захворювань нирок. 18.     Renal diseases  Renal diseases encompass various conditions affecting kidney structure and function: 1. Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD): Progressive loss of kidney function, often linked to diabetes or high blood pressure. 2. Acute Kidney Injury (AKI): Sudden kidney dysfunction due to factors like dehydration or medication toxicity. 3. Glomerulonephritis: Inflammation of kidney glomeruli, caused by infections or autoimmune disorders. 4. Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD): Genetic disorder forming fluid-filled cysts in the kidneys, leading to kidney enlargement and failure. 5. Kidney Stones: Mineral deposits causing severe pain during passage through the urinary tract. Symptoms include changes in urine output, blood in urine, swelling, fatigue, nausea, and difficulty breathing. Diagnosis involves tests like urine analysis, blood tests, imaging, and sometimes biopsy. Treatment varies but may include medication, lifestyle changes, dialysis, or transplant. Prevention focuses on healthy living, managing underlying conditions, hydration, and avoiding harmful substances. Early detection and treatment are crucial for managing renal diseases. Захворювання нирок включають різні стани, що впливають на структуру та функцію нирок: 1. Хронічна хвороба нирок (ХХН): прогресуюча втрата функції нирок, часто пов’язана з діабетом або високим кров’яним тиском. 2. Гостре ураження нирок (ГНН): раптова дисфункція нирок через такі фактори, як зневоднення або токсичність ліків. 3. Гломерулонефрит: запалення ниркових клубочків, викликане інфекцією або аутоімунними розладами. 4. Полікістозна хвороба нирок (PKD): генетичний розлад, що утворює заповнені рідиною кісти в нирках, що призводить до збільшення нирки та її відмови. 5. Камені в нирках: мінеральні відкладення викликають сильний біль під час проходження через сечовивідні шляхи. Симптоми включають зміни виділення сечі, кров у сечі, набряк, втома, нудоту та утруднене дихання. Діагностика передбачає такі тести, як аналіз сечі, аналіз крові, візуалізація та іноді біопсія. Лікування різне, але може включати прийом ліків, зміну способу життя, діаліз або трансплантацію. Профілактика зосереджена на здоровому способі життя, лікуванні основних захворювань, гідратації та уникненні шкідливих речовин. Раннє виявлення та лікування мають вирішальне значення для лікування захворювань нирок. 19.     The physiology of male reproductive system  - contained – міститься - in addition – в додаток - mainmance of the typical masculine - збереження типового чоловічого - constantly – постійно - fertilize - запліднювати 20.     The physiology of female reproductive system  fetus is capable of bending its arms and a fist. The fetus’s skin is slightly pink and less transparent than it was previously. Fine hair covers the entire body. The first eyelashes and eyebrows begin to appear. Once month later, the fetus may have hair in its head. It is now 12 inches long and weighs about 1 pound. Third Trimester The fetus takes on most of its weight during its last 13 weeks of development. The baby is covered with a thick white protective coating called vernix. The infant’s eyes are open, and a baby born at this time can cry weakly and move its limbs. The infant now weighs 3 pounds 12 ounces. The skin may or may not still be covered with vernix. Most of the body hair is gone, although the shoulders and arms may still have a light covering. The finger, nails and toenails may extend beyond the fingers and toes. 22.     Childbirth  Childbirth (also known as labour, parturition and delivery) Most births start naturally (spontaneously) between gestational week 37 and 42. Labour typically starts when the uterus (womb) starts tightening to produce contractions. The onset of labor is accompanied by contractions. Contractions are painful cramps that come more frequently than every 10 minutes or so and last for 45-60 seconds. Contractions usually come several minutes apart and last a short time at the start, and as labour progresses they increase in frequency, duration and intensity. Most women feel the pain in their lower belly and/or lower back. Once labour has started, the contractions change your cervix so it begins to slip away to the sides to make space for your baby to pass through the birth canal. The birth canal consists of: • The pelvis – the bony part of the birth canal • The muscles in the pelvis • The vagina – the soft part of the birth canal The pelvis is funnel-shaped, so its size differs at the different levels of the pelvis. This means that the baby has to make some rotations during labour to adapt and pass through the pelvis. In general, Labour is divided into three stages: the dilation stage, expulsion stage and placental stage. The dilation (opening) stage is the longest, while the expulsion (pushing out) stage lasts 30- 60 minutes, and the placental stage takes from a few minutes to up to 60 minutes. Various factors influence how long it takes to give birth: • Whether you've given birth before or not. Giving birth to a first baby usually takes the longest. • The frequency and effectiveness of your contractions influence how long the labour lasts. Regular and effective contractions are all-important for good progress; the contractions push the baby down into the pelvis and the cervix (neck of the womb) opens. • Active labour in first-time mothers lasts 4 to 16 hours. For women who have given birth before, labour usually lasts 2 to 11 hours. This varies from woman to woman and from birth to birth. The first stage of labor is early labor, also known as the latent phase. This phase can last from several hours to days, especially for first-time mothers. During this time, the cervix begins to efface (thin out) and dilate (open) up to 3-4 centimeters. Contractions are typically mild, irregular, and gradually become more consistent. Next comes active labor, which usually lasts 4-8 hours but can vary. The cervix dilates from 4 to 7 centimeters, and contractions become stronger, more regular, and closer together, about 3-5 minutes apart. The baby begins to descend into the birth canal. This phase is more intense and painful, and women are typically admitted to the hospital or birthing center at this stage. Pain management options, such as epidurals or breathing techniques, may be utilized. The transition phase is typically the shortest but most intense phase, lasting 30 minutes to 2 hours. The cervix dilates from 8 to 10 centimeters, and contractions are very strong, frequent (about 2-3 minutes apart), and may last up to 90 seconds. This phase is often the most challenging, with many women feeling a strong urge to push, although they may be instructed to wait until fully dilated. The second stage of labor is delivery, which can last from a few minutes to a few hours. This stage begins once the cervix is fully dilated and ends with the birth of the baby. The mother pushes with each contraction to help move the baby through the birth canal. After the baby is born, the third stage of labor, known as the afterbirth, occurs. This stage usually lasts 5-30 minutes. Contractions continue to help expel the placenta, which detaches from the uterine wall and is delivered. The mother may feel mild contractions and some relief as the placenta is delivered. Medical staff will ensure the placenta is intact to prevent complications. The immediate postpartum care, or fourth stage of labor, encompasses the first few hours after delivery. During this time, the mother’s body begins to recover. The uterus contracts to prevent excessive bleeding, and the mother is monitored for any signs of complications. Breastfeeding often starts during this period, allowing for bonding with the newborn. Mothers might experience a mix of exhaustion, relief, and joy. - The onset of labor is accompanied by contractions - Початок пологів супроводжується схватками 23.     Infectious diseases  The infectious diseases are caused by the following types of organisms: bacteria, vi- ruses, fungi, protozoa, helminthes. Bacteria are one-cell organisms that are visible only under a microscope. They appear as slender rods or groups of round cells and are able to live and multiply by subdivision. When infectious bacteria gain entry to the human body, they multiply and may produce powerful chemicals, called toxins. A few of the common groups of bacteria that cause dis- ease are Staphylococci, Streptococci, Chlamydia, Haemophilus, Gonococci, and Rickett- sia. Not all bacteria are harmful. Some bacteria that reside in the body are beneficial. A virus is a minute microorganism consisting of the one or more molecules of either DNA or RNA and covered by a protein coat. Viruses grow and multiply themselves only when they have invaded living cells. The types of fungi are molds, yeasts, and mushrooms. Obviously, mushrooms are not infectious, but certain yeasts and molds can be. Of the thousands that are harmless or even helpful, only about 100 cause disease. Protozoa are single-cell organisms that may live within a person as a parasite. Often these organisms spend part of their life cycle outside of humans, living in food, soil, water, or insects. Many protozoa reside in the intestinal tract and are harmless, although some may cause disease. The word “helminth” comes from Greek word helmins, meaning “worm”. Helminths are among the larger parasites. If they enter the body, they take up residence in the intesti- nal tract, lungs, liver, skin, or even brain. So, some infectious diseases are bacterial, some are viral, and still others have other causes. The most common infectious diseases that affect only one organ or body system are: glossitis, gingivostomatitis, oral thrush, salivary gland infections (diseases of the mouth); botulism, encephalitis, meningitis, poliomyelitis (infections of the central nervous system); trachoma (infections of the eyes), acute viral gastroenteritis, Whipple’s Disease, peritonitis (infections of gastrointestinal tract); bronchiolitis, acute bronchitis, Legionnaires’ Disease, tuberculosis (infections of the respiratory system); impetigo, dermatitis (infections of the skin); infectious arthritis Goint disorder). Some diseases affect multiple systems of the body. They are called “generalized in- fections”. They are: HIV infections and AIDS, influenza, typhoid fever, tetanus, rabies and others. Common contagious diseases are common viral colds, measles, roseola, whooping cough, croup, chickenpox, mumps, diphtheria, and scarlet fever. Parasitic infestations are malaria, tapeworm, trichinosis and others. Some infestations are caused by small insects that attach themselves to the skin and feed off the blood. They are known as insect infestations, for example: lice, fleas, and ticks. Bacteria and viruses transmitted by sexual contact can cause various sexually trans- mitted diseases. Gonorrhea, chlamydial infection, and syphilis are bacterial in origin. Her- pes and venereal warts are viral infections. SUBGROUPS OF THE INFECTIOUS DISEASES There are four subgroups of the infectious diseases. Intestinal infections compose the first subgroup. They are spread through the intestines and stools. Dysentery is an example. The infections of the respiratory tract compose the second group. They are spread during coughing and talking. The diseases of this subgroup are diphtheria, smallpox and others. The diseases of the third subgroup are spread through the skin and mucosa. Herpes and lichen are the examples. Blood infections compose the fourth subgroup. These diseases are spread by insects. Encephalitis is an example. pre-existing health conditions.  There are 4 types of influenza viruses: A, B, C, and D. Influenza A and B viruses are the most common and cause seasonal epidemics in humans. Influenza C virus primarily affects children and causes a mild infection. Influenza D virus is found in cattle and pigs and can infect humans but does not cause illness. The viruses are primarily transmitted through respiratory droplets from coughing and sneezing, as well as through contact with contaminated surfaces. Frequent hand washing, covering the mouth and nose when coughing and sneezing, and annual vaccination can help prevent the spread of the flu.  The flu can affect anyone, but certain groups are at a higher risk of developing severe complications. These include young children, pregnant women, adults over 65, people with weakened immune systems, and those with underlying health conditions such as asthma, heart disease, and diabetes. Influenza can be especially dangerous for people in nursing homes, military barracks, and hospitals. It is important for these high-risk individuals to take precautions and get vaccinated to reduce their chances of severe illness.  Vaccination is an effective way to  prevent, against the flu. Washing hands frequently or using an alcohol-based hand sanitizer and covering coughs can help  reduce the spread of the flu.  Antiviral medications may be prescribed to reduce the duration and severity of flu symptoms.  Avoiding touching own eyes, nose, and mouth and avoiding close contact with sick individuals can also prevent the spread of germs. Maintaining a healthy lifestyle helps to keep immune system strong. 27.     Cancer. Tumours   Tumors are masses or growths, which arise from surrounding normal tissue. They may be either malignant (progressive and life-threatening) or benign (non-progressive and not life- threatening). Benign tumors display slow growth and are encapsulated. So that tumor cells cannot invade the surrounding tissue. Malignant tumor growth is invasive. It extends beyond the tissue of origin into adjacent organs. The major groups of malignant tumors are carcinomas, sarcomas, and mixed-tissue tumors. A carcinoma is a malignant tumor derived from epithelial tissue (glandular, skin, linings of internal organs). A sarcoma is a malignant tumor derived from connective tissue (blood, bone, muscle, fat, or cartilage). Mixed-tissue tumors are derived from tissue, which is capable of differentiating into epithelial as well as connective tissue. Malignant neoplasms lack the normal growth control that is exhibited by most other adult tissues, and in many ways they resemble embryonic tissue. Rapid growth is one characteristic of embryonic tissue, but as the tissue begins to reach its adult size and function, it slows or stops growing completely. This cessation of growth is controlled at the individual cell level, cancer results when a cell or group of cells for some reasons breaks away from that control. This breaking loose involves the genetic machinery and can be induced by viruses, environmental toxins, and other causes. The illness associated with cancer usually occurs as the tumor invades and destroys the healthy surrounding tissue, eliminating its function. Malignant tumor can spread by local growth and expansion or by metastasis, which results from tumor cell's separating from the main mass and being carried by the lymphatic or circulatory system to a new site where a second tumor is created. There is no medicine to cure anybody from cancer. Scientists are trying to find the cure but they cannot find it. Very many sick people are waiting for this miraculous cure. It will help thousands of people that have cancer. Cancer is general term for various illnesses characterized by abnormal growth of cells, forming tumors that can develop in various parts of the body. Some cancers can affect one organ, and others are more generalized. Cancer is very serious disease. Annually, cancer is diagnosed in approximately 1.4 million persons. Cancer causes more than 500,000 deaths every year. As we know, the human body is a living, growing system that contains billions of individual cells. These cells carry out all of the body's functions, such as metabolism, transportation, excretion, reproduction, and locomotion. The body grows and develops as a result of increases in numbers of new cells and their changes into different types of tissue. New cells are created through the process of cell division. Different types of cells are created by an accompanying process called cell differentiation (differentiation is the process by which cell acquires a specialized function). Cell division results in the normal pattern of human growth; cell differentiation makes possible the normal, orderly pattern of growth and development. Unlike normal cells, cancer cells lack the controls that stop growth. They divide with- out restraint, displacing neighboring normal cells by crowding them out and affecting their normal function and growth by competing with them. These uncontrolled cells can grow into a mass called a tumor (or a neoplasm) and invade and destroy nearby normal tissue. They also can migrate in a process called "metastasis", spreading via the blood or lymph system to other parts of the body. It is important to note all cells that have rapid or uncontrolled growth are cancer cells. Cells may accumulate as benign tumors, which do not invade or destroy surrounding tissues. Why cancer develops in some people is not fully known. The earlier the cancer detected, the greater the chances it can be treated before it spreads to other tissues or organs in the body. With the cancer screening procedures available today, many cancers can now be detected early enough to be cured. Every diagnosis of cancer attempts to identify the type and location of the cancer. Each type of cancer has its own characteristic rate of growth, tendency to spread, and particular set of target tissues or organs to which it spreads. Cancer therapy is concentrated primarily on trying to confine and then kill the malignant cells. This goal is accomplished by killing the tissue with X-rays, by removing the tumor surgically, or by treating the patient with drugs that kill rapidly dividing cells (chemotherapy). The major problem is that some cancers cannot be removed completely by surgery or killed by X-rays. In addition, X-rays may also kill normal tissue adjacent to the tumor. Drugs used in cancer therapy do not kill only cancer tissue, but they kill any other rapidly growing tissue as well such as bone marrow (in which new blood cells are produced) and the lining of the intestinal tract. Loss of these tissues can result in anemia (caused by a lack of red blood cells) and nausea (caused by loss of the intestinal lining). 28.     Metastatic tumours  Metastatic tumors result from tumor cell's separating from the main mass and being carried by the lymphatic or circulatory system to a new site where a second tumor is created. Metastasis doesn’t always cause symptoms. Cancer cells can grow and spread gradually over many months or years. In some instances, it’s possible to have Stage 4 cancer and not know it. General symptoms of metastasis may include: extreme fatigue, night sweats, unexplained weight loss. Some signs of metastatic cancer depend on the location of the primary tumor and where the cancer cells spread. Depending on the type of metastasis you have, symptoms might include: bloating, swollen belly, decreased appetite, getting full quickly or jaundice (common in liver metastases), bone pain or fractures (common in bone metastases), dizziness, headaches and seizures (common in brain metastases), shortness of breath (common in lung metastases). Metastasis happens when cancer cells break off from the original tumor and spread to other parts of your body. These cancer cells can travel through your bloodstream or lymph vessels. Many factors can trigger metastasis, like: a weakened immune system, hypoxia (a lack of oxygen in your tissues), lactic acidosis (a buildup of lactic acid in your blood), autophagy (a type of cell death). Some people already have metastatic cancer at the time of their diagnosis. In these cases, a healthcare provider usually detects metastases during initial testing. Other people develop metastases after completing treatment for non-metastatic cancer. During routine follow-ups, a healthcare provider checks for signs of recurrence (cancer that comes back after treatment). Tests which are done to diagnose metastasis: biopsy, blood tests, bone scans, CT (computed tomography) scans, MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scans, PET (positron emission tomography) scans, tumor marker-based tests, ultrasound, X-rays. Healthcare providers can treat metastasis based on where the cancer started. For example, if a person has breast cancer and the cancer spreads to their liver, their provider will still treat it the same way as breast cancer. This is because the cancer cells haven’t changed — they’re just living in a new place. Metastatic cancer treatments may include: Chemotherapy, Hormone therapy, Immunotherapy, Radiation therapy, Targeted therapy. Some metastases may require local targeted therapy to manage symptoms. For instance, if you have breast cancer that spreads to the bone and causes pain or fractures, your provider can treat and ease those symptoms with surgery or radiation to the bone. You can’t always prevent cancer from spreading. But when providers can detect cancer earlier, a combination of surgery and adjuvant therapy might lower your risk for developing metastasis. Common adjuvant therapies include chemotherapy, targeted therapy and immunotherapy. Experts continue to research ways to slow, stop or prevent the spread of cancer cells. But sometimes, metastasis happens, despite doing all the right things. According to research, there aren’t any diets that make people more prone to cancer or prevent metastasis from happening. If you have metastatic cancer, it’s important to know that it’s not your fault and that you haven’t done anything wrong. 29.     Infertility   ( беспліддя) Infertility the inability to become pregnant after a year of unprotected intercourse, six months if the female partner is older than 35 can result from fertility problems with either the male or female partner, or both. The split is roughly down the middle: an estimated 40 percent of diagnosed cases of infertility are due to male factors; another 40 percent are due to female reproductive issues. In the remaining 20 percent of couples, there are contributing factors from both partners or doctors can find no cause (known as "unexplained infertility"). Infertility is the incapability of an individual to become pregnant, in case of females, or the incapability to induce pregnancy, in case of the males. Signs of infertility are not always evident. Most people go through life without knowing there is a problem with their reproductive systems, attributing failed pregnancies to providence. In fact, miscarriages are the most common indicator of infertility. In women, the signs of infertility are more readily recognized as compared to men. Endometriosis causes the lining of the uterus to grow outside the uterus. Bacterial infections may begin around the uterus and spread to other reproductive organs, resulting in infertility. Fibroids in the uterus are indicative of infertility. Tumors in the cervix often cause stenosis, or narrowing of the cervix, which is a common indicator of infertility. Irregular menstrual cycles are the most common indication in females that they might have some problems with fertility. Alternatively, obesity can also be a sign. Obesity is accompanied by hormonal imbalance, which affects the reproductive system and pregnancy, Depending on the test results, different treatments can be suggested. Eighty-five to 90 percent of infertility cases are treated with drugs or surgery. Various fertility drugs may be used for women with ovulation problems. You should understand the drug's benefits and side effects. Depending on the type of fertility drug and the dosage of the drug used, multiple births (such as twins) can occur