The Importance of Effective Communication in the Workplace, Exams of Physiology

Download The Importance of Effective Communication in the Workplace and more Exams Physiology in PDF only on Docsity! 1 / 47 \ physiological psychology Study Guide Review 1.synapse: junctions neurons use to communicate (specialized gap) 2.Leg flexion reflex: a sensory neuron excites a second neuron, which excites a motor neuron, which excites a muscle 3.3 important points about reflexes: 1) Reflexes are slower than conduction along an axon 2)Several weak stimuli presented at slightly different times or slightly different locations produces a stronger reflex than a single stimulus does 3)As one set of muscles relaxes, another set becomes excited 4.reflex arc: A relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without con- scious brain involvement. 5.temporal summation: Repeated stimuli can have a cumulative effect and can produce a nerve impulse when a single stimuli is too weak - Sherrington observed that repeated stimuli over a short period of time produced a stronger response 6.Presynaptic neuron: neuron that delivers the synaptic transmission 7.Postsynaptic neuron: neuron that receives the message 8.Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP): graded potential that decays over time and space -The cumulative effect of EPSPs are the basis for temporal and spatial summation 9.spatial summation: synaptic input from several locations can have a cumulative effect and trigger a nerve impulse -that several small stimuli on a similar location produced a reflex when a single stimuli did not 10.properties of synapses: -Spatial summation is critical to brain functioning -Each neuron receives many incoming axons that frequently produce synchronized responses -Temporal summation and spatial summation ordinarily occur together -The order of a series of axons influences the results 11.inhibitory postsynaptic potential: the temporary hyperpolarization of a mem- brane -An ISPS occurs when synaptic input selectively opens the gates for 2 / 47 \ positively charged potassium ions to leave the cell or negatively charged chloride ions to enter the cells -Serves as an active "brake" that suppresses excitation 5 / 47 \ 21.ionotropic effect: refers to when a neurotransmitter attaches to recereceptors and immediately opens ion channels 22.Transmitter-gated: or ligand-gated channels are channels controlled by a neu- rotransmitter 23.Metabotropic effects: occur when neurotransmitters attach to a receptor and initiates a sequence of slower and longer lasting metabolic reactions - Metabotropic synapses use many neurotransmitters such as dopamine, norepi- nephrine, serotonin, and sometimes glutamate and GABA 24.neuromodulators: neuropeptides -Release requires repeated stimulation -Released peptides trigger other neurons to release same neuropeptide -Diffuse widely and affect many neurons via metabotropic receptors 25.General rule: a neuron delivers neuropeptides that diffuse to receptors through- out a wide area, but delivers other transmitters in small amounts directly adjacent to their receptors 26.exception to general rule: Neurogliaform cell: a neuron shaped like a glia cell that releases huge amounts of GABA all at once 27.neurogliaform cell: a neuron shaped like a glia cell that releases huge amounts of GABA all at once 28.hormone: a chemical secreted by a gland or other cells that is transported to other organs by the blood where it alters activity -Hormones are important for triggering long-lasting changes in multiple parts of the body 29.Endocrine glands: responsible for the production of hormones 30.reuptake: refers to when the presynaptic neuron takes up most of the neuro- transmitter molecules intact and reuses them -Neurotransmitters released into the synapse do not remain and are subject to either inactivation or reuptake 31.Transporters: are special membrane proteins that facilitate reuptake -Example: serotonin is taken back up into the presynaptic terminal 32.Examples of inactivation and reuptake: Acetylcholine is broken down by acetylcholinesterase into acetate and choline 33.Excess dopamine is converted into inactive chemicals: COMT: enzymes that convert the excess into inactive chemicals 34.Negative feedback: -Autoreceptors: receptors that detect the amount of trans- mitter released and inhibit further synthesis and release -Postsynaptic neurons: respond to stimulation by releasing chemicals 6 / 47 \ that travel back to the presynaptic terminal where they inhibit further release 7 / 47 \ 35.Autoreceptors: receptors that detect the amount of transmitter released and inhibit further synthesis and release 36.Postsynaptic neurons: respond to stimulation by releasing chemicals that trav- el back to the presynaptic terminal where they inhibit further release 37.Gap junction: the direct contact of the membrane of one neuron with the membrane of another 38.Drugs: alter various stages of synaptic processing -Antagonist: a drug that blocks a neurotransmitter -Agonist: a drug that increases a neurotransmitter's effects 39.Antagonist: a drug that blocks a neurotransmitter 40.Agonist: a drug that increases a neurotransmitter's effects 41.Stimulant drugs: increase excitement, alertness, motor activity, and elevate mood -Examples: amphetamines, cocaine, methylphenidate (Ritalin), MDMA (Ecstasy), and nicotine -Amphetamine and cocaine inhibit the dopamine transporter 42.Amphetamine and cocaine: stimulate dopamine synapses by increasing the release of dopamine from the presynaptic terminal 43.Methylphenidate: RITALIN -also blocks the reuptake of dopamine but in a more gradual and more controlled rate -Often prescribed for people with ADD -Research has found inconclusive results on whether Ritalin use in childhood makes one more likely to abuse drugs as an adult 44.Nicotine: is the active ingredient in tobacco -Stimulates one type of acetylcholine receptor known as the nicotinic receptor -Nicotinic receptors are abundant in the nucleus accumbens and facilitate dopamine release -Repeated exposure to nicotine makes the drug more rewarding, but it makes every other stimulus less rewarding 45.Opiate drugs: are those that are derived from (or similar to those derived from) the opium poppy -Opiates decrease sensitivity to pain and increase - relaxation by attaching to endorphin receptors in the brain -Examples: morphine, heroin, methadone 46.endorphins: peptides produced by the brain -Endorphin synapses may contribute to certain kinds of reinforcement by 10 / 47 \ -The dorsal surface thickens forming a neural tube surrounding a fluid filled cavity -The forward end enlarges and differentiates into the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain -The rest of the neural tube becomes the spinal cord 11 / 47 \ -The fluid-filled cavity becomes the central canal of the spinal cord and the four ventricles of the brain -The fluid is the cerebrospinal fluid 55.weight of brain: -At birth, the human brain weighs approximately 350 grams -By the first year, the brain weighs approximately 1000 grams -The adult brain weighs 1200-1400 grams 56.development of neurons in the brain: Proliferation Migration Differentiation Myelination Synaptogenesis 57.Proliferation: refers to the production of new cells/ neurons in the brain primarily occurring early in life -Early in development, the cells lining the ventricles divide -Some cells become stem cells that continue to divide -Others remain where they are or become neurons or glia that migrate to other locations 58.Migration: refers to the movement of the newly formed neurons and glia to their eventual locations -Some don't reach their destinations until adulthood -Occurs in a variety of directions throughout the brain -Occurs via cells following chemical paths in the brain of immunoglobins and chemokines 59.Differentiation: refers to the forming of the axon and dendrite that gives the neuron its distinctive shape -The axon grows first either during migration or once it has reached its target and is followed by the development of the dendrites 60.Myelination: refers to process by which glia produce the fatty sheath that covers the axons of some neurons -Myelin speeds up the transmission of neural impulses -First occurs in the spinal cord and then in the hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain -Occurs gradually for decades 61.Synaptogenesis: the final stage of neural development and refers to the forma- tion of the synapses between neurons -Occurs throughout the life as neurons are constantly forming new connections and discarding old ones -Slows significantly later in the lifetime 12 / 47 \ 62.Stem cells: undifferentiated cells found in the interior of the brain that generate "daughter cells" that can transform into glia or neurons 15 / 47 \ the lifetime -Dendrites continually grow new spines -The gain and loss of spines indicates new connections, which relates to learning -Neurons also become more finely tuned and responsive to experiences that have been important in the past -This may account for the fact that blind people often have enhanced tactile senses and increased verbal skills -The occipital lobe normally dedicated to processing visual information adapts to also process tactile and verbal information -Practicing a skill reorganizes the brain to maximize performance of that skill -Certain types of training may also exert a bigger effect if they begins early in life --Example: musicians who began before age 7 showed advantages over those who started later in life 72.Focal hand dystonia: or "musicians cramp" -refers to a condition where the reorganization of the brain goes too far -The fingers of musicians who practice extensively become clumsy, fatigue easily, and make involuntary movements -This condition is a result of extensive reorganization of the sensory thalamus and cortex so that touch responses to one finger overlap those of another 73.brain development and behavioral development: -Adolescents tend to be more impulsive than adults -Impulsivity can be a problem when it leads to drinking, risky driving, sex, etc. -Antisaccade task: looking away from a powerful attention-getter -Gradually improves during the teenage years -Adolescents tend to "discount the future" -Adolescents are not equally impulsive in all situations Peers, amount of time to make decisions, etc., effect their decisions Adolescents' prefrontal cortexes are relatively inactive in certain situations, but this may or may not be the cause of impulsivity -Neurons alter synapses more slowly in old age -Brain structures begin to lose volume -Research underestimates older people: -People vary in respect to intellectual decline -Older people have a greater base of knowledge and experience, and 16 / 47 \ many find ways to compensate for losses 74.Antisaccade task: looking away from a powerful attention-getter 75.plasticity after brain damage: -Survivors of brain damage show subtle to significant behavioral recovery 17 / 47 \ -Some of the mechanisms of recovery include those similar to the mechanisms of brain development such as the new branching of axons and dendrites 76.brain damage and short-term recovery: Tumors Infections Exposure to toxic substances Degenerative diseases Closed head injuries 77.closed head injury: refers to a sharp blow to the head that does not puncture the brain -One of the main causes of brain injury in young adults -After a severe injury, recovery can be slow and incomplete 78.stroke: cerebral accident -temporary loss of blood flow to the brain -Common cause of brain damage in elderly 79.types of strokes: - Ischemia Hemorrhage 80.Ischemia: the most common type of stroke, resulting from a blood clot or obstruction of an artery Neurons lose their oxygen and glucose supply 81.Hemorrhage: a less frequent type of stroke resulting from a ruptured artery Neurons are flooded with excess blood, calcium, oxygen, and other chemicals 82.edema: the accumulation of fluid in the brain resulting in increased pressure on the brain and increasing the probability of further strokes -Disruption of the sodium-potassium pump leading to the accumulation of potassium ions inside neurons 83.tissue plasminogen activator: (tPA) a drug that breaks up blood clots and can reduce the effects of an ischemic strokes -Research has begun to attempt to save neurons from death by: --Blocking glutamate synapses --Blocking calcium entry 84.way to minimize brain damage: One of the most effective laboratory methods used to minimize damage caused by strokes is to cool the brain Mechanisms are uncertain but cooling someone during the first three days is beneficial 20 / 47 \ 92.major components of neurons: -dendrites -soma/cell body -axon -presynaptic terminals 93.neuron structures: -membrane -nucleus 21 / 47 \ -mitochondria -ribosomes -endoplasmic reticulum 94.cell body/soma: contains the nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, and other structures found in other cells -responsible for the metabolic work of the neuron 95.membrane: a structure that separates the inside of the cell from the outside environment 96.nucleus: a structure that contains the chromosomes 97.mitochondrion: structure that performs metabolic activities and provides ener- gy that the cells requires 98.ribosomes: sites at which the cell synthesizes new protein molecules 99.Endoplasmic reticulum: network of thin tubes that transport newly synthesized proteins to their location 100. dendrites: branching fibers with a surface lined with synaptic receptors respon- sible for bringing information into the neuron 101. dendritic spines: that further branch out and increase the surface area of the dendrite -The greater the surface area of the dendrite, the more information it can receive 102. axon: thin fiber of a neuron responsible for transmitting nerve impulses toward other neurons, organs, or muscles 103. myelin sheath: insulating material that covers some neurons 104. nodes of ranvier: interruptions in the myelin sheath by short un-myelinated sections 105. presynaptic terminals: refer to the end points of an axon where the release of chemicals to communicate with other neurons occurs 106. motor neuron: has its soma in the spinal cord and receives excitation from other neurons and conducts impulses along its axon to a muscle 107. sensory neuron: specialized at one end to be highly sensitive to a particular type of stimulation (touch, light, sound, etc.) 108. afferent axon: refers to bringing information into a structure 109. efferent axon: refers to carrying information away from a structure 110. interneurons: intrinsic neurons -are those whose dendrites and axons are completely contained within a single structure 111. glia: are the other major components of the nervous system 22 / 47 \ 112. types of glia: -astrocytes -microglia -oligodendrocytes 25 / 47 \ -A touch on the shoulder reaches the brain more quickly than a touch on the foot -The brain is not set up to register small differences in the time of arrival of touch messages -It does matter with vision where movements must be detected as accurately as possible -The properties of impulse control are well adapted to the exact needs for information transfer in the nervous system 123. electrical gradient: A difference in the electrical charge inside and outside of the cell -This is also known as polarization 124. polarization: a difference in the electrical charge of two locations -The inside of the membrane is slightly negative with respect to the outside (approx- imately -70 millivolts) 125. resting potential: a neuron refers to the state of the neuron prior to the sending of a nerve impulse 126. selectively permeable: allowing some chemicals to pass more freely than others -Sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride pass through channels in the membrane When the membrane is at rest: -Sodium channels are closed -Potassium channels are partially closed allowing the slow passage of potassium 127. sodium-potassium pump: is a protein complex that continually pumps three sodium ions out of the cells while drawing two potassium ions into the cell -Helps to maintain the electrical gradient 128. concentration gradient: (the difference in distributions of ions) work to pull sodium ions into the cell -The electrical gradient tends to pull potassium ions into the cells, but they slowly leak out, carrying a positive charge with them 129. hyperpolarization: refers to increasing the polarization or the 26 / 47 \ difference be- tween the electrical charge of two places 130. depolarization: refers to decreasing the polarization towards zero 27 / 47 \ 131. threshold of excitement: refers to a level above which any stimulation pro- duces a massive depolarization 132. action potential: a rapid depolarization of the neuron -The action potential threshold varies from one neuron to another -Stimulation of the neuron past the threshold of excitation triggers a nerve impulse or action potential 133. voltage activated channels: membrane channels whose permeability de- pends upon the voltage difference across the membrane -Sodium and potassium channels are voltage activated channels -When sodium channels are opened, positively charged sodium ions rush in and a subsequent nerve impulse occurs 134. action potential steps: -After an action potential occurs, sodium channels are quickly closed -The neuron is returned to its resting state by the opening of potassium channels -Potassium ions flow out due to the concentration gradient and take with them their positive charge -The sodium-potassium pump later restores the original distribution of ions -The process of restoring the sodium-potassium pump to its original distribution of ions takes time -An unusually rapid series of action potentials can lead to a build up of sodium within the axon -Can be toxic to a cell, but it only occurs in rare instances such as stroke and after the use of certain drugs 135. anesthetic drugs: block sodium channels and therefore prevent action poten- tials from occurring 30 / 47 \ -A local neuron depolarizes or hyperpolarizes in proportion to the stimulation 146. central nervous system: the brain and the spinal cord 31 / 47 \ 147. peripheral nervous system: connects the brain and spinal cord to the rest of the body; has two parts 148. automatic nervous system: controls the heart, intestines, and other organs -Has some cell bodies within the brain or spinal cord or in clusters along the sides of the spinal cord 149. somatic nervous system: consists of axons conveying messages from the sense organs to the CNS and from the CNS to the muscles 150. ventral: towards the stomach 151. dorsal: towards the back 152. spinal cord: part of the CNS found within the spinal column -Communicates with the sense organs and muscles, except those of the head -Bell-Magendie law: entering dorsal roots carry sensory information and exiting ventral roots carry motor information -Cell bodies of the sensory neurons are located in clusters of neurons outside the spinal cord, called the dorsal root ganglia 153. gray matter: located in the center of the spinal cord and is densely packed with cell bodies and dendrites 154. white matter: composed mostly of myelinated axons that carries information from the gray matter to the brain or other areas of the spinal cord -Each segment sends sensory information to the brain and receives motor com- mands 155. autonomic nervous system: sends and receives messages to regulate the automatic behaviors of the body (heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, etc.) Divided into two subsystems: -The sympathetic nervous system -The parasympathetic nervous system 156. sympathetic nervous system: is a network of nerves that prepares the organs for rigorous activity: 32 / 47 \ -Increases heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, etc. ("fight or flight" response) -Comprised of ganglia on the left and right of the spinal cord 35 / 47 \ 165. cerebellum: -Structure located in the hindbrain with many deep folds -Helps regulate motor movement, balance, and coordination -Also important for shifting attention between auditory and visual stimuli 166. midbrain structures: -tectum -superior colliculus and inferior colliculus -tegmentum -substantia nigra 167. tectum: roof of the midbrain 168. superior colliculus and inferior colliculus: processes sensory information 169. Tegmentum: contains nuclei for cranial nerves and part of the reticular forma- tion 170. Substantia nigra: gives rise to the dopamine-containing pathway facilitating readiness for movement 171. forebrain: the most anterior and prominent part of the mammalian brain and consists of two cerebral hemispheres -Consists of the outer cortex and subcortical regions -Outer portion is known as the "cerebral cortex" -Each side receives sensory information and controls motor movement from the opposite (contralateral) side of the body 172. limbic system: consists of a number of other interlinked structures that form a border around the brainstem -Includes the olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus of the cerebral cortex -Associated with motivation, emotion, drives, and aggression 173. thalamus: relay station from the sensory organs and main source of input to the cortex 174. hypothalamus: -Small area near the base of the brain -Conveys messages to the pituitary gland to alter the release of hormones 36 / 47 \ -Associated with behaviors such as eating, drinking, sexual behavior and other motivated behaviors 37 / 47 -Thalamus and the hypothalamus together form the "diencephalon" 175. pituitary gland: hormone producing gland found at the base of the hypothala- mus 176. Basal ganglia: comprised of the caudate nucleus, the putamen, and the globus pallidus -Associated with planning of motor movement, and aspects of memory and emo- tional expression -Also important for attention, language planning, and other cognitive functions 177. basal forebrain: comprised of several structures that lie on the dorsal surface of the forebrain 178. nucleus basalis: -Receives input from the hypothalamus and basal ganglia -Sends axons that release acetylcholine to the cerebral cortex -Key part of the brains system for arousal, wakefulness, and attention 179. hippocampus: a large structure located between the thalamus and cerebral cortex -Toward the posterior portion of the forebrain -Critical for storing certain types of memory, particularly new events 180. central canal: a fluid-filled channel in the center of the spinal cord 181. ventricles: are four fluid-filled cavities within the brain containing cerebrospinal fluid 182. Cerebrospinal fluid: is a clear fluid found in the brain and spinal cord -Provides "cushioning" for the brain -Reservoir of hormones and nutrition for the brain and spinal cord 183. Meninges: membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord 184. the ventricles: -The brain has no pain receptors, but the meninges do 40 / 47 language 41 / 47 -Also responsible for complex aspects of vision, including movement and some emotional and motivational behaviors 191. kluver-bucy syndrome: associated with temporal lobe damage 192. frontal lobe: Contains the prefrontal cortex and the precentral gyrus 193. precentral gyrus: also known as the primary motor cortex; responsible for the control of fine motor movement 194. prefrontal cortex: the integration center for all sensory information and other areas of the cortex (most anterior portion of the frontal lobe) -Responsible for higher functions such as abstract thinking and planning -Responsible for our ability to remember recent events and information ("working memory") -People with damage to the prefrontal cortex exhibit delayed-response task: have to respond to something they see or hear after a delay 195. binding problem: refers to how the visual, auditory, and other areas of the brain produce a perception of a single object -Perhaps the brain binds activity in different areas when they produce synchronous waves of activity -A person perceives two sensations as happening at the same time and in the same place 196. research methods: -examine the effects of brain damage -examine the effects of stimulating a brain area -record brain activity during behavior -correlate brain anatomy with behavior 197. effects of brain damage: can produce an inability to recognize faces, an inability to perceive motion, changes in emotional responses, and many more effects 198. ablation: removal of a brain area 199. lesion: damage to a brain area, often done for research 200. stereotaxic instrument: used to damage structures in the interior 42 / 47 of the brain 201. transcranial magnetic stimulation: application of an intense magnetic field to a portion of the scalp to temporarily deactivate neurons below the magnet 45 / 47 -Scanner is rotated slowly until a measurement has been taken at each angle and a computer constructs the image -Used to identify tumors and abnormalities 210. MRI: magnetic resonance imaging -involves the application of a powerful magnetic field to image the brain 211. brain size and intelligence: -Research has not supported that a larger brain is correlated with higher intelligence -Brain-to-body ratio research has some limited validity -Moderate correlation exists between IQ and brain size (.3) -Amount of grey and white matter may also play a role -IQ is correlated with amount of grey matter -Men have larger brains than women but IQ is the same -Various differences in specific brain structures exist between men and women, but the number of neurons are about the same for both -Explanations in differences in cognitive abilities can perhaps be better explained by interest than abilities (i.e., more male chess masters because more boys play chess) -Greater resemblance among twins for both brain size and IQ -For monozygotic twins, the size of one twin's brain correlates significantly with the other twin's IQ -Therefore, whatever genes that control the brain also relate to IQ 212. cardiocentric: Aristotle's theory that the heart controlled thoughts, emotions and behavior. 213. encephalocentric: brain centered explanations of behaviors, as the result of dissection studies by Hippocrates 214. dualism: The presumption that mind and body are two 46 / 47 distinct entities that interact. 47 / 47 215. monism: the presumption that mind and body are different aspects of the same thing 216. penfield's experiments: brain stimulation in the motor and sensory cortex showed that the related body part to the representative area when stimulated would show a reaction. 217. blindsight: ability of a person who cannot see objects in their field to accurately reach for them while remaining unconscious of perceiving them 218. primitive visual system: eye and head movements, reaching for objects, orientation, simple behaviors 219. mammalian visual cortex: speech and thinking in words about objects seen, complex behaviors 220. :