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Defining and non-defining relative clauses
begin wi th a relative pronoun,
which can sometimes be omitted :
0 We went to a beach { which I that ) Ali had recommended to us.
Reminder -+ J1-JS
Here the relative pronoun refers to 'a beach', and the subject of the relative clause is ' Ali '. Compare:
I know a ma n who I that ran in the
New York Marathon last year.
where the relative pronoun refers to 'a man', and the subject of the relative clause is also 'a man '.
In this case, the relative pronoun can't be omitted.
Relative
pronouns are used to add information in defining relative
clauses as follows:
adding information about things
subject which
th at
object which
that no relative pronoun
adding information about people
subject who that
object who that no relative
pronoun whom
1 When we add
information about things, we can use that (or no relative pronoun ) as object in
conversation and w hich in more formal contexts :
Decorating's
a job { that ) I hate. (rather than ' ... which .. .' in this informal
context)
When we add information about people, we generally prefer that (or no relative pronoun) as object
in informal contexts rather than who or whom :
He's t he man { that ) I met at Aisha's party (rather than
... who I whom I met ... )
-tr whom is very forma l and
rarely used in spoken English:
The boy whom Elena had shouted at smiled. (less
formally that , no relative pronoun or who )
'fr We use that as subject after: something and anyth ing; words such as all, little, much , and none
used as pronouns; and noun phrases that include superlatives
. Which is also used as subject after
something and anything, but less commonly:
" These walls are all that remain of the
city. (not ... which remain of the city.)
fl Note that we can use that {or no relative pronoun) as object after someth ing I anything; all , etc.;
and noun phrases with superlatives. For example:
She's one of the kindest people
( that ) I know. (not ... one of the kindest people who I know.)
Relative pronouns
are used to add information in non-defining relative clauses
as follows:
adding information about things adding information about people
subject which
t hat subject who
object
which t ha t object
who
Note that we must include a relative pronoun in a non-defining relative clause.
We can use who or whom as object, although whom is very formal:
whom
'--' Professor Johnson, who (m ) I have long admired, is to visit the university next week.
fl Wh en we add info rmation about things, we can use which as subject or object. That is sometimes
used instead of which, but some people think this is incorrect :
) The Master's course, which I took in 2001, is no longer taught. (or ... t hat I took ... )
Exercises
Put brackets around the italicised relative pronoun if it can be omitted. fJ
1 We talked about the party which Natalia wants to organise for my birthday.
2 To get to Maxim's house, take the main road that bypasses the village.
3 The paintings which Mr Flowers has in his house are worth around £ 100 ,000.
4 Let's go through the main points that he made in his lecture.
5 He received a low mark for his essay, which was only one page long.
6 Mrs Yang, who is 42, has three children.
7 Dev is a friend who we stayed with in Australia.
8 In the shop window there's a sign that says '10% off'.
9 The couple who live next t o us have 16 grandchildren.
10 There was little that we could do to help her.
Rewrite these sentences including the information in brackets as relative clauses (defining or
non-defining). Give alternative relative pronouns if possible. (Use (- )to indicate 'no relative
pronoun'.) CID
1 Oliver said something. (I couldn't hear it clearly) .... ... so44 SO_l)"l_tj:h_i.t'.lg _thaj(. f Wbi.c:h .J ..
... .-::. L.(..()u.(41'.''t c:Wμ:4J,.
2 Eva's father has just come back from a skiing holiday. (he is over 80)
3 The problems faced by the company are being resolved. (I 'll look at these in detail in a moment)
4 She was greatly influenced by her father. (she adored him)
5 He pointed to the stairs. (they led down t o the cellar)
6 These drugs have been withdrawn from sale. (they are used to treat stomach ulcers)
7 The singer had to cancel her concert. (she was recovering from flu)
8 The minister talked about the plans for tax reform. (he will reveal them next month)
9 I have two older sisters. (I love them very much)
- If necessary, correct or make improvements to these sentences. If they are already correct,
write ./. t.D
1 There's something which I should tell you.
2 The doctor whom Ingrid went to see was very thorough.
3 Yesterday was the hottest day I can remember.
4 There isn't much can go wrong with the machine.
5 Thieves whom stole paintings from Notford art gallery have been arrested in Paris.
6 It may be the most important decision w hich you will ever take.
7 The boy took the photograph was paid £100.
8 I heard many different accents in the room, but none which I could identify as Polish.
9 He just said anything which came into hi s head.
10 There's this dream w hich I have every night about falling downstairs.
Additional exercise 11 (page 247) 107
Exercises
--"""- Combine a sentence from (i} with a sentence from (ii) to make new sentences with whose. D
(i) (ii)
1 Dr Rowan has had to do all her own typing.
2 The newspaper is owned by the Mears
group.
a Its chairperson is Miss jiu Kim.
b Their diets contain high levels of protein.
c Their flowers are attractive to bees.
3 Parents are being asked to take part in the
survey.
d Her secretary resigned hvo weeks ago.
e Her first job was filling shelves in a
4 Children do better in examinations. supermarket.
5 My aunt is now CEO of a department store.
6 I enjoy growing plants.
f Their children are between four and six.
1 + d Pr. Gl.,99, hAA. J.p .411. ,.aj+ bey QW.l'.I
.... ...
CID Define the words using whose (1-3} and in which ( 4-6}. You may need to use a dictionary.
1 A lexicographer is a person .. tQ.. ..
2 A widow is a woman ......
3 An actuary is a person
4 A furnace is a container
5 A gazebo is a small garden building
6 Polo is ........ .. ..............................
..,.....,. Complete these sentences using phrases from the box and when, whereby, where or why. Q
the area an agreement a condition a method the moment the reason
Sunset is defined in astronomy as. ............ ............... .. ............... ....... ....... the whole of the sun's disc
disappears below the horizon.
2 In 1951, China and the Soviet Union signed .... ... ............ ............. China provided
uranium ore in exchange for technical assistance.
3 The coastline is ............ ...................... the land meets the sea or ocean.
4 The river is prone to sudden flooding which is ..... ........................... ........... ...... there are no major
towns along its banks.
5 Freeze-drying is
order to preserve it.
6 Hypoglycaemia is
.... ............................................. wat er is rapidly evaporated from frozen food in
...... the level of sugar in the blood drops suddenly.
-...-.. If the italicised word is correct, write./. If not, suggest another word. Cl
1 I think whatever was responsible for damaging the trees should be fined or sent to prison.
2 Do they really understand that they are doing?
3 I don't envy whoever buys that house. It's in a terrible condition.
4 Now that I no longer have to wear a school uniform, I'll be able to wear which I want.
5 I think the government should improve the health service, whichever the cost.
6 It 's a question that I've been asking for many y ears.
7 The clock makes a noise what keeps me awake at night.
8 I'm su re that Rashid will do well at university, which one he goes to.
-+ Additional exercise 11 (page 247) 109
In formal styles noun + of which is often preferred
to -
Reminder-+ J1 -JS
U A h uge amount
of oil was spilled, the effects of which are still being
felt. (or ... whose effects
are still being felt.)
- that I which ... of in relative clauses :
C) The
school of which she is head is closing. (less formally The
school (that I which) she is head
of is closing.)
After both we can use of which and of whose , but not usually which or whose :
0 Lotta was able to switch between German and
Al so after: all, each , many , most ,
Russian, both of which she spoke fluently.
(not ... both which she
spoke fluently.) neither, none , part , some, a number
(one, two, etc.; the fi rst, the second,
et c.; half, a third, et c.), and superlatives
(the best , the biggest, et c.)
In formal, mainly written, English whose can come after a preposition in a relative clause. Putting the
preposition at the end of the clause is more natural in informal and spoken English:
I now turn to Freud,
from whose work the following quotation is taken. (less formally
Freud, whose work the following quotation is taken from .)
When a preposition is needed with the relative pronouns which and whom we usually put it before
the relative pronoun in formal styles:
0 The rate at which a material heats up depends on its chemical composition.
0 There are 80 teachers in the Physics Department, among whom are 24 professors.
After a preposition we usually use whom rath er than who in formal styles:
0 Is it right that politicians should make important decisions without consulting the public to
whom they are accountable? (rather
than ... the pub li c t o who they are accountable.)
and we don't use that or no relative pronoun :
The valley in which the town lies is heavily
polluted. (not The valley in that the town lies is
heavily polluted
.; not The valley in the town lies is heavily polluted.)
In less formal English we usually put the preposition later in the relative clause:
The office that Juan took us to was filled with books
. (rather than The office to which Juan
took us ... )
and we prefer who (or that ) rather than whom (see also Unit 26A):
" The playground wasn't used by the children who it was built for.
If the verb in the relative clause is a two - wo rd verb (e.g
. come across , fill in, look after , take on ) we
don't usually put the preposition before the relative pronoun:
The Roman coins, which a local farmer came across in a fie ld, are now on display in the
National Museum. (not ... coins, across which
the local farmer came, are ... )
W ith three-word verbs, we only put the preposition before the relative pronoun in a very formal or
li te rary style, and many people avoid this pattern:
She is one of the few
people to whom I look up. (or less formally ... who I look
up to .)
We sometimes add information about a person or thing referred to in one noun phrase by talking
about the same person or thing in a different way in a following noun phrase:
0 A hooded cobra, one of the world's most dangerous snakes, has escaped from Dudley Zoo.
fJ Dr Alex Parr, director of the State /vfuseum, is to become the government's arts adviser.
In writing, the items are usually separated by a comma, and in speech they are often separated by a
pause or other intonation break. However, when the second item acts like a defining relative clause,
w hen it is usually a name, there is usually no punctuation in writing or intonation break in speech:
0 fvfy friend fvfia has moved to Sweden. (rather than My friend, Mia, ... )
0 The current champion is expected to survive her first-round match with the Italian Silvia
Farina. (rather than ... the Italian, Silvia Farina.)
We can add information to a noun phrase with a conjunction such as and or or:
0 Kurt Svensson, her teacher and well-known concert pianist, thinks that she has great talent.
(=her teacher is also a well-known concert pianist)
0 Phonetics or the study of speech sounds is a common component on courses in t eaching
English as a foreign language.
The adverb namely and the phrase that is are used to add details about a noun phrase:
0 This side effect of the treatment, namely weight gain, is counteracted with other drugs.
0 The main cause of global warming, that is the burning of fossil fuels, is to be the focus of
negotiations at the international conference.
We can also add information to a noun phrase using a participle clause beginning with an -ing, -ed or
being+ -ed verb form. These are often similar to defining relative clauses:
_..) The people living next door come from Italy. (or The people who are living next door ... )
0 The weapon used in the murder has now been found. (or The weapon that was used ... )
0 The prisoners being released are all women. (or The prisoners who are being released ... )
Note that - ing participle clauses correspond to defining relative clauses with an active verb, while -ed
and being+ -ed clauses correspond to defining relative clauses with a passive verb.
We can also use a to-infinitive clause, as in:
0 Have you brought a book to read?
L' My decision to resign from the company was made after a great deal of thought.
(J I thought that the management's offer, to increase staff holidays, was a good one.
In written English, particularly in newspapers, - ing and -ed clauses are also used instead of non-
defining relative clauses. These are usually written between commas or dashes (- ):
0 The men, wearing anoraks and hats, made off in a stolen Volvo estate.
0 The proposals - expected to be agreed by ministers - are less radi cal than many employers had
feared.
We can use
an it-clause with be to focus attention
on the information that immediately
follows
it+ (be). A sentence
like this is somet imes called a cleft
sentence. The clause after the it-clause
(usually a that-clause ) contains information
that is already known or considered
to be less important:
0 'Lea bo
u ght the car from Olav.' ' No, it was Olav
that bought the car from Lea.'
l I don't mind
her criticising me, but it 's how she does
it that I object to.
r It was to show
how much I cared for her that I bought
her the necklace.
We sometimes
use which or who instead of that
; when and where can also be used,
but usually only
in informa l English;
and note that how or why can 't
replace that :
Karl was always there to
help her, and it was to him that I who
she now turned for support.
( 'Ida's
seriously ill in hospital.' 'But it was only
last Sunday when / that I was playing
tennis
with her.'
0 It was in Warsaw where I that
the fi lm was made.
( 'Was it
by cutting staff that he managed to save
the firm?' 'No, it was by improving
distribution
that he made it profit able.' (not ... how
he made it profitable.)
Focusing with what-clauses
We can also use a what-clause
followed by be to focus attention
on certain information in a
sentence (=another form of
cleft sentence). This pattern is particularly
common in conversation. The
information
we wa nt to focus attention on is outside
the what - clause. Compare:
,...., We gave
them some home-made cake. and
' What we gave them was
some home-made cake.
We
often do t his if we want to introduce a
new topic; to give a reason, instruction
or explanation; or to
correct
something that has been said or done.
In the following examples, the informa
t ion in focus is in
ital
ics:
What I'd like you to work on is the revision
exercise on the website.
( Isa
a rri ved two hours late: what had happened
was that his bicycle chain had broken
( 'We've only got this small
bookcase - wi ll t hat do?' 'No, what
I was looking for was
something
much bigger and stronger.'
We can often put the
what-clause either at the beginning or
the end of the sentence:
What upset me
most was his rudeness. or
His rudeness was what upset me most
To focus attent ion
on an action performed by someone,
we use a sentence with what + subject
+ do
+ be + to-infinitive clause. We can
't use an it - clause to do this (see A ):
Luis lost his job and was short of
money, so wha t he did was { to ) sell
his flat and move in
with his brother
. (not ... so it was (to) sell his flat that
he did.)
The pattern in B is only
usually used with what-clauses. Instead
of placing other wh-clauses
(beginning how, when, where
, who, why) at the beginning of the
sentence we prefer to use a noun
which
has a meaning related to the wh - word
(e.g. reason rather than why; place rather
than where)
followed by a that- or wh-clause
. Here are some examples:
0 The only reason {why
I that ) I left t he party early was that
I was feeling unwell. (rather than
Why I left the party
early was ... )
( The place (where I that ) you
should play football is the playground,
not the classroom.
( Somebody {who I that ) I enjoy r
eading is Peter Carey.
l. The time {when
I that ) I work best is early morning.
