English for communication studies
English For Communication Studies (Università degli Studi di Pavia)
English for communication studies
English For Communication Studies (Università degli Studi di Pavia)
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Understanding Metaphors, English Language Features, and Non-Verbal Communication - Prof. M, Appunti di Lingua Inglese
An in-depth analysis of various metaphors, their uses, and examples in english language. It also covers english language features such as prefixes, intertextuality, framing, provenance, and visual puns. Additionally, the document discusses non-verbal language, including body language, vocal cues, written communication paralanguage, appearance, distance, touch, time, and media. Particularly useful for students studying english language, communication, and cultural studies.
Tipologia: Appunti
2022/2023
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English for communication studies
English For Communication Studies (Università degli Studi di Pavia)
English for communication studies
English For Communication Studies (Università degli Studi di Pavia)
ENGLISH FOR COMMUNICATION STUDIES – PROF. McINTIRE
INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH FOR COMMUNICATION What is communication? Communication can be defined as the process of passing information from one person to another using a medium
Why does communication matter? Tony Robbins says that the way we communicate with others and with ourselves ultimately determines the quality of our lives.
Effective communication vs. bad communication can affect personal relationships, politics, economy, businesses, university or job applications and interviews and promoting intercultural understanding.
The first step to create an effective and strategic communication is to answer these three questions:
- WHAT do you want to say?
- WHO do you want to say it to?
- HOW do you want to say it? It is also important to create a strategic communication to BE PRECISE: the more precise is the content, the more effective is the communication. Example Communication: “I want a sweater” Effective communication: “I want a medium sized red sweater”
Why English? English is the current LINGUA FRANCA. A lingua franca can be defined as a bridge language used to facilitate communication between people who do not share a native language.
Internal Lingua Francas The creation of national languages was a method of managing the linguistic diversity within borders (dialects and distinct languages). It fulfilled the need for people to be able to communicate within borders.
Transnational Lingua Francas Even with standardized languages, a new problem came about: a need to communicate between countries.
- SABIR: oldest documented pidgin language and was based on romance languages. It was used for trade between Europeans, the Turkish, Arabs and others in Levant.
- LATIN: it was used as a transnational language, however, quickly declined in influence as it was unsuitable to handle international transaction and new fields of knowledge.
Auxiliary language Artificial languages are invented to serve as universal language that wouldn’t privilege any one country. These languages are not invented to replace national languages and should not be used as vehicle of cultural values (e.g. literature). The problem was that too many auxiliary languages were invented and were therefore in competition with each other. The other problem is that these languages were unstable and in need of constant change.
Basic English
World Language Hierarchy
LESS IS MORE
Human nature:
- People do not want to be given homework.
- If you dilute the most important points, your readers/listeners will miss your key message.
- Overkill : much more of something than is needed, resulting in less effectiveness.
- You need to catch the receiver’s attention. People have very short attention spans. It is important to choose the words carefully. Every communication should be carefully crafted, memorable and clearly reinforce the meaning of your message.
- Headlines/Title
- CV/Letters/Presentations
- Slogans
- Text and Images
- Brand names
- Speeches
LINGUISTICS AND COMMUNICATION
Michael Halliday He is a linguistic. He developed the Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL). Halliday says that language is a meaning potential : a systemic resource for meaning
There are three meta-functions through which we create meanings and through we organized grammar:
- Ideational
- Grammar is related to the concept “ FIELD ” that concern experiences and the representation
- Speakers make meanings about the world and about their world experiences
- Interpersonal
- Grammar is related to the concept “ TENOR ” that concern the social distance, the status …)
- Speakers are always talking with someone else (dialogue, exchange)
- Textual
- Grammar is related to the concept “ MODE ” that concern the organization of the text and its qualities (= tone, spontaneity …)
- This function investigates how the message is arranged and the message itself
Those meta-functions correspond to three different level:
- WHAT we want to say
- WHO we want to say it to
- HOW we want to say it (spoken or written / formal or informal / texting or mailing …)
Register Michael Halliday considers register as “the linguistic features which are typically associated with a configuration of situational features, with particular values of the field, tenor and mode”.
FIELD Includes those subjects matters:
- What
- Where
- When
- Why something is happening …
TENOR
- Investigates the social relationships between the interactants.
- Influences some choices in the linguistic system
- Helps to be suited for every linguistic exchanged
MODE It’s the channel of the communication that can be, for example, written or spoken. It can be:
- A presentation
- An e-mail
- A message
- A speech
- …
J.L AUSTIN – Speech act theory A Speech act is an utterance that has a performative function in communication A speech act is divided in:
- Locutionary act à what is said
- Illocutionary act à what is meant
- Perlocutionary act à the effect that the message produce A speech act can be:
- Expressive à express speaker’s feelings
Aristotle’s model of communication SPEAKER à MESSAGE à LISTENER Modes of persuasion:
- Ethos = ethical credibility
- Pathos = appealing to the emotions of the audience
- Logos = appeal to the logic and reason
Harold Lassweld Communication’s modality:
1. WHO = speaker 2. WHAT = message produced by the speaker 3. HOW = channel, way in which the message produced by the speaker is passed to someone 4. TO WHOM = audience who received the message produced by the speaker 5. EFFECT = every message produces some effects in the audience
SHANNON-WEAVER - mathematical model Communication’s modality:
- The sender transmits a message using the operation of “ encoding ” à he’s called encoder
- The message is transmitted using the channel. The channel can be disturbed. In that case the information may not arrive correctly to the receiver à channel noise.
- The message arrives to the receiver who use the operation of “ decoding ” à he’s called decoder. He also gives back to the sender a feedback.
A communication can be:
- ENTROPIC = when a communication is rich of new information and highly unpredictable
- REDUNDANCY = when a communication is poor of new information and highly predictable
Wilbur Schramm Schramm’s model: The communication takes place in the “ field of experience ” and is divided in some points:
- The sender encodes a message
- The receiver decodes and interprets the message
- The receiver becomes the new sender and encodes a feedback
- The sender becomes the new receiver and interprets and decodes the feedback Considerations:
- Communication is a two-ways street that involves two persons: the sender and the receiver
- Schramm believed that the process cannot be declared complete without the feedback
- There must be commonality in the sender’s and in the receiver’s filed of experience otherwise the conversation cannot take place
David Berlo’s SMCR model
This model identifies four elements of communication: source, message, channel and receiver.
- S = sender It’s composed by elements which affects the communication process:
- Communication skills : the communication skills of the sender affect the communication process à strong skills help communicate more effectively the message, while weak skills not. Also, the communication skills of the receiver are important à if the receiver can't understand completely the message the communication can’t be completely effective. Communication skills include:
- Reading
- Speaking
- Writing
- Listening
- Presenting
- Attitude : the attitude of the sender and of the receiver affects the communication process à the attitude toward his/herself and also the attitude toward the environment changes the meaning and affects the whole message.
- Knowledge : who is speaking must have knowledges about the information that is trying to communicate in order to make the communication more effective.
- Social system : some social factors like religion, beliefs, values and rules, affect the communication à we need to consider all these elements, the location and the situation before speaking.
- Culture : influences how message is constructed à something can be offensive in a determinate culture and not in another. 2. M = message Is the substance that the sender wants to transmit at the receiver. Key factors that affects the message:
- Content : is the message itself, from beginning to the end.
- Elements : are non-verbal acts which accompany the content, like gestures, sign…
- Treatment : way in which the message is passed to the receiver.
- Structure : the way in which the message has been constructed effects the effectivity of the communication process.
- Code : mode in which the message is sent. A message can be sent in form of:
- Language
- Text
- Video 3. C = channel Is the medium used to send the message. Can be:
- Mass communication : telephone, internet, tv, radio
- Communication starts from receiving message instead of sending them
- After receiving messages (= information) from different sources those information are combined to create a new message
- The new message passes through a gatekeeping
- The message reaches the audience
- Audience sends a feedback to the sender.
The feedback can be sent in two ways:
- Directly and quickly in interpersonal communication
- Indirectly and slower in mass communication
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 1
1. Present simple Used to express the habits of your current life (even if you’re not doing them at the moment). Adverbs:
- Often
- Sometimes
- Always
- Never
- Usually
- Normally
- Rarely
- Every
The verbs change only in the third person (he/she/it) à +S I eat You eat He eats
Question = Do you eat? Negation = No, I don’t eat
2. “ING” VS “TO” Present continuous = what I’m doing now, even if is not my habit. (ING) I’m speaking English
Weather = when we talk about the weather, we are most often talking about what is happening now, so we use the present continuous. (ING) It is raining N.B: if you speak about usual seasonal weather patterns, you would use present simple à It usually snowS in the winter
Feelings = ING I love cooking
Change of activity status = ING BEFORE/AFTER STUDY ING START/BEGIN STUDY ING FINISH/STOP STUDY ING QUIT SMOK ING GETT ING
After prepositions = ING I look forward TO seeing you. How ABOUT going for an aperitivo? Are you interested IN learning English? I’m good AT playing tennis, but I’m bad AT cooking He is afraid OF flying
With the verb “Continue” = “continue” requires the continuous (ING) We continued studying
- get dressed / undressed
- get changed
- get lost
Get + adjective = get (become) combines with many adjectives that often describe a change in state. It’s getting:
- hot/cold
- dark
- late
- better/worse
- busy I’m getting:
- hot/cold
- tired
- better/worse
- hungry
- ready
Phrases and phrasal verbs I get on very well with my sister (= have a very good relationship with my sister) How are you getting on? (= what progress are you making?) It is difficult to get to know people? (= meet people and make friends) We should get rid of these books (=sell them/throw them away/remove them) My alarm wakes me up at 7, but I don’t usually get up (=get out of bed) until 7. Those boys get on my nerves (= annoy me and make me angry)
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 2
1. Past simple Used to describe an action that started in the past and has already finished in the past (10 years ago/this morning/yesterday/last week).
- Regular verbs : Verb + ED
- Irregular verbs : 2nd^ column 2. Present perfect o Used to describe actions that started in the past and continue to the present. e.g: I have lived in Italy for many years I have studied at UNIPV for 2 months o Used to describe periods of time that started in the past and have not finished. This includes the number of “times” something has happened. e.g: I have been to London 3 times I haven’t seen her recently Have you ever been to Hong Kong? Have you ever eaten caviar?
- Regular verbs : Have/has + verb ED
- Irregular verbs : Have/has + 3rd^ column
Just (appena) and already (già) are used to emphasize completed actions. They are placed between the auxiliary verb (have and the past participle. I have just had lunch
Yet is used in the negative and interrogative structure. It is placed at the end of the sentence. Have you had lunch yet? à già No, I havent’t had lunch yet à non ancora
3. Present perfect continuous Used for actions that have started in the past and have a result now.
- Regular and irregular verbs : Have/has + been + verb in the ING form e.g: It has been raining therefore, the ground is wet. I have been working a lot recently, so I’m very tired now. 4. Past continuous (=stavo facendo) Used to show that an ongoing past action was happening at a specific time in the past, at a specific moment of interruption in the past, or that two ongoing actions were happening at the same time.
- Subject + was/were + verb in the ING form e.g: I was eating pizza when you called / while I was eating pizza, you called. 5. Past perfect (=avevo fatto) Used to describe a past of a past action.
- Regular verbs : had + verb ED
- Irregular verbs : had + irregular verbs e.g: when I saw you yesterday, I had just returned from the doctor’s office. 6. Past perfect continuous Used to express an action starting before a certain point in the past with a result at that certain point in the past.
- Had + been + verb ING e.g: I was really tired when I took the exam last Saturday as I had been studying extra hard all month. 7. Used to do (=facevo) Used to describe a past habit that you no longer do. e.g: I used to live in Milan, but now I live in New York I used to be vegetarian, but now I eat some meat
- Negative form : I didn’t use to
- Interrogative form : Did you use to? 8. Get/be used to + verb in ING (= sto diventando/sono abituato a fare) This structure descries whether or not you are, are becoming, were or have already become accustomed to doing something. e.g: I am used to taking the train to get from Pavia to Milan She is not used to studying everyday At first, she wasn’t used to driving on the left side. She got used to driving on the left side. Now she is used to driving on the left side. 9. Make VS do
You MUST NOT buy me a birthday present.
3. Should o Used to express what is the “morally” right or correct thing to do. The government should do more to reduce crime You look sick. You should go to bed o We also use should to express when we expect something to happen. Where is our professor? She should be here by now. She has been studying hard for the exam, so she should pass.
Future, subjunctive and the hypothetica Key Difference Between the Future Forms
- I’m going/I’m going to go : Used to show a future that is already organized or something that is inevitable. I am going to the theatre tonight
- Will/Shall : Used to show a future that is not organized yet (even if there is already the intention to do something). Therefore, if there is “doubt,” this structure is expressed to show that.
WILL (1)
We use will when we decide to do something at the time of speaking (so it is not organized yet).
- Offering to do something You’ve lost your wallet? Here, I’ll lend you some money.
- Agreeing to do something Would you mind helping me carry this bag down the stairs? Sure, I’ll help you carry it down the stairs...no problem!
- Promising to do something I promise I won’t (will not) tell anyone your secret.
- Asking somebody to do something (Will you?) Will you please open the door?
WILL (2) We also use will when expressing doubt or predictions.
- I’ll probably go...
- I think I’ll go...
- I don’t think it will rain...
- I’m not sure if I’ll go...
- I’m sure you’ll pass the exam...
- I expect she’ll phone...
- I wonder if he’ll like the present...
WILL NOT = WON’T Expresses that a future action will not happen or can express refusal. He will not come to class tomorrow.
SHALL The first person should be involved. Shall I open the window? Shall we go? Shall we eat?
Conditional We use the conditional when we imagine a situation or an action—we think of something that is not real.
- WOULD (HAVE)
- COULD (HAVE)
- SHOULD (HAVE) 1. Would have When we imagine situations or actions in the past that didn’t happen. I didn’t invite them to the party. They wouldn’t have come anyway. I didn’t have her phone number. Otherwise I would have called her. 2. Could/could have o Could : used for actions that are not realistic. I’m so hungry, I could eat a horse I’m so tired, I could sleep for a week o Could have (avrei potuto): something that was possible but didn’t happen. Why didn’t you tell me you were visiting Milan? You could have stayed with me I could have got you a ticket if you had told me you wanted to go to the concert
N.B = couldn’t is also used to express the past of can’t and past general ability. (ex. I could speak Chinese very well when I was a child)
3. Should have o Should have : you didn’t do it, but it would have been the right thing to do. You should have come with us. We really needed your help o Shouldn’t have : you did it, but it was the wrong thing to do. I feel sick. I shouldn’t have eaten so much
Subjunctive (= statements that reflect a person’s state of mind including beliefs, intentions, wishes, opinions and purposes)
- It is imperative that one ( should) study hard to pass the exam.
- It is critical that we ( should) try to demonstrate greater compassion.
- It is essential that the government ( should) take care when determining fiscal policy.
- It is important that we ( should) help those less fortunate.
Hypothetical
- Present simple + Future (Possible) If it rains, I will not go to the park
- Past simple + Present conditional (Impossible) If I were you, I would study hard for the exam
- Past Perfect + Past conditional (Past/Impossible) If I had known, I would have helped you.
- A bright future
- Bright side
- Shining light of …
- … 2. Dark = negative
- Black sheep
- Darkest hour
- Left in the dark
- … **WARM-COLD
- Warm = positive, comfortable**
- Warm person
- Warm hospitality
- Warm and fuzzy
- … 2. Cold = negative
- Cold shoulder
- Very coldly
- Cold blooded
- Cold feet
- …
Personification (=attribution of a personal nature or human characteristic to something non-human) Examples:
- Life has cheated me
- Fear is hurting me
- …
Metaphors in argument (=used for persuasive writing)
1. War’s topic Examples:
- He attacked every weak point in my argument
- His criticism were right on target
- I demolished this argument
- … 2. Journey’s topic
- We will proceed in a step by step fashion
- This observation points the way to an elegant solution
- … 3. Surface’s topic
- We have covered those points
- You’re getting off the subject
- Let’s go back over the argument 4. Container’s topic
- Your argument doesn’t have much content
- … doesn’t have much substance
- This argument has holes in it
- … 5. Building’s topic
- We’ve got the framework for a solid argument
- He’s trying to support his argument
- That will easily fall apart under criticism
- Your argument has a solid foundation
- …
PREPOSITIONS
1. AT (precise) Used with:
- Time (ex: at 4.00PM)
- Location (ex: at home)
- Verbs (ex: look at) 2. ON Used with:
- Time (ex: on Mondays)
- Location (ex: on the desk)
- Wave (ex: on the internet)
- Travel (ex: on a trip)
- Regimen (ex: on a diet)
- Verbs (ex: focus on) 3. IN (not precise) Used with:
- Time (ex: in the morning)
- Location (ex: in Italy)
- Field (ex: I work in finance) 4. TO Used with:
- Movement (ex: I go to)
- Communication (ex: I talk to)
- Some expressions like: compared to, similar to, in regard to … 5. INTO Used with:
- Expressions like : divided into / got into /break into / walk into / looking into …
- Verbs that indicate an idea of changing from one to another (ex: turn into /convert into …)
- Verbs like : crash, bump, run or drive 6. FOR Uses:
- Followed often by a noun (ex: looking for help)
- If used with a verb, the verb goes in the “ing” form (thanks for helping) 7. ABOUT Used with:
- Verbs that indicate concern / something that is spinning in your head (ex: worry about / think about / concerned about / dream about …)
- With or as substitute of the expression “regarding” (ex: the movie is about)
- To indicate something approximate (ex: we will arrive there at about 2.00PM) 8. OF Uses:
- Indicates something that “comes to us” (ex: I though of an idea => the idea came to me)
- Indicates possession (ex: a friend of mine)
- Indicates something made from (ex: it’s made of Murino glass)