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Terrorism - the conceptual frame 1
Terrorism - the conceptual frame
Checkbox
Topic 1 - Terrorism and the universe of political violence: definitions
Type of notes Seminar/class notes
Introduction
Kidnapping and assassination of Aldo Moro
Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Desaparecidos in Argentina
↳ Violence + spreading fear
Political end
Target → immediate + political
Ethics + legitimacy (contexts + jurisdiction) → should we condemn the terroristic act if the aim was
good? (e.g. Resistance/Palestinian attacks on Israel)
Not to be considered
Focus on whether terrorism is effective from a political point of view
Terrorism = tactic/method and can be used by anyone
Why a course in history of terrorism and security?
History always “repeats itself” → terrorism as a cyclic feature
Phenomenon that repeats itself in modern + ancient history (zealots)
Concept of terror → developed during the French Revolution referring to Robespierre state of
terror
History provides models + answers → how to manage a crisis?
Crisis management + security policies development
History offers key elements for understanding politics: tradition, education, political culture,
international dynamics
History influences terrorist movements + development of security politics
History helps to contextualize
Terrorism brings upon a emergency feeling in people
If we know how to manage emergencies, we can avoid panic
Terrorism - the conceptual frame 2
History tells us that the mankind has gone through worse time. And survived.
Schmid & Jongman (1985)
Analysis of definitions of terrorism
The element of violence was included in the 83.5% of definitions
Political goals in 65%
Inflicting fear and terror in 51%
Arbitrariness and indiscrimination in 21%
Victimization of civilians, noncombatants, neutrals and outsiders
Official definitions of terrorism are fairly similar
Terrorism as “an unlawful use or threat of violence against persons or property to further political or social objectives. It is generally intended to intimidate or coerce a government individuals or groups to modify their behavior or policies” ~ US Vice-President’s Task Force (1986)
“Terrorism is the enduringly conducted struggle for political goals, which (is) intended to be achieved by means of assaults on the life and property of other persons, (…) or by means of other acts of violence, which serve as preparation of such criminal acts” ~ Office for the Protection of the Constitution - Federal Republic of Germany
“The use of violence for political ends, and includes any use of violence for the purpose of putting the public or any section of the public in fear” ~ British Legal Definition
Commonalities
Use of violence
Political objectives
Intention of inducing fear in target population
Limits
No elements to distinguish among different forms of violence
Terrorism - the conceptual frame 4
Kidnappings of selective people very common in 3rd wave, it is now not that common anymore (esp.
in the Western world)
Leaders’ Speeches
Reagan’s radio address to the nation on terrorism (May 31,1986)
Tony Blair on fight against terrorism (September 16, 2001)
Bush declares War on Terror (September 20, 2001)
Hollande dénonce “un acte de guerre” commis par Daesh (November 14, 2005)
↳ What is the impact of the historical context on leaders’ speeches?
Response to a specific episode (9/11 - Bombing of La Belle discotheque in West Berlin 5/4/1986 -
Paris attacks of 2015)
↳ What is the definition of terrorism they provided? What are the differences? What are the similarities?
Definition of terrorism as an ideological war
Struggle between democratic countries and non-democratic ones → terrorists as enemies of
democracy
↳ What is their final goal?
Stimulate an emotional response
The universe of political violence (physical + psychological)
States against states
Action is well-organized and planned
Reflects the commitment of large bureacracies → developed by states
e.g. conventional war, raids, selective assassinations, limited airstrikes…
States against citizens
Illegal use of violence against citizens
Terrorism - the conceptual frame 5
Intimidate + coherce its citizens with the intention of prefenting them from opposing the regime +
uprising
e.g. state surveillance, ethinic clensing, discrimination in general…
Citizens against citizens
Common crime → no political objectives
Political fight
Racial/ethnic rivalries + left/right-wing ideologies + idiosyncratic issues (e.g. abortion + animal
rights)
Vigilantism
Unauthorized attempt to control crime + violence against ethnic/politiccal minorities
Citizens against the state
Spontaneous or organized
Organized → insurgency aimed at overthrowing the government
Forms of insurgent violence
Revolution + coup d’état + guerrilla war (+ intifada) → strategies of insurgency
Coup d’état
Forcible overthrowing of the government
Individual or small group of individuals
Part the state apparatus → usually military
Include infiltrations in key institutions of the government
Secrecy of organization → strike by surprise
Usually, little violence durin very brief period of time
Terrorism - the conceptual frame 7
Method and causes: terrorists and freedom fighters
Terrorism = method of struggle
Can be adopted by groups for diverse causes
Freedom fighter = cause of struggle → self-determination/national liberation (not all resort to
terrorism)
Terrorism as a strategy of insurgence
Psychological element
Intention to influence an audience + purpose of putting the public or any section of it in fear
Psychological impact = most essential element
Terrorist groups = small → no expectation of winning the struggle in physical way
Propaganda by deed
= terrorist act was the best herald of the need to overthrow the regime + the torch that would light
the way to doing it
Attacks → transform terrorists from small conspirational club to massive revolutionary
movement
Targets = from symbolic (e.g. head of state) to more indiscriminate with mass casualties →
greater shock value + massive media coverage
Terrorism = meant to be 1st stage of struggle
Intimidation
Select categories of people (e.g. judges/journalists) through a systematic campaign of
assassination + maiming + kidnapping
Terrorism - the conceptual frame 8
The general population → punishment of government employees + those who cooperate with
authorities/refuse to assist
Sometimes used to force the population to take a stand
Provocation
Marighella
Terrorist attacks → government intensifies repression (house searches + arrests of
innocent people…) → political persecution → police terror and political assassinations
become routine → general sentiment is that the government is unjust and incapable of
solving problems, and only resorting to use of force → increased support for terrorists
Particularly relevant to a conflict with an international dimension
Strategy of chaos
Create athmosphere of disorder + insecurity
Random bombing in public spaces
Typical of right-wing insurgents
Aim = publiv will demand the “weak” liberal government to be replaced by a strong regime
Not a comprehensive plan for seizing power
Strategy of attrition
Insurgent groups = knowledge of inferiority as fighting force → strategy of protacted struggle
Government fighting for its own existence → cost-benefit analysis
Political + economic + strategic losses if yield to the insurgents’ demands
vs.
Price if the struggle continues
New Frontiers of Terrorism Research: an Introduction 2
Various types of operations in a seemingly random fashion → everyone feels in jeopardy Not random → terrorists trade off risks and returns when choosing a target Soft + high-valued targets = particularly attractive Carefully planned + executed campaign to effectively use violence to gain a presence → eg. general sense of fear + restriction on civil liberties + governments seldom cave into terrorist demands, but may have to spend heavily on counter-terrorism = raise taxes + divert public moneys
Levels of terrorism
Domestic terrorism = involves perpetrators, targets, victims, venues, and audience in the same country Outnumber transnational terrorist incidents Countries are motivated to address it because the associated benefits/costs of doing so are solely gained + borne at home → no opportunity to rely on other countries’ counter-terrorism actions
Transnational terrorism = involves perpetrators, targets, victims, venues, and audience in more than one country More difficult to address owing to the need for international cooperation
Types of counter-terrorism policies
Defensive policy = involves hardening targets through protective measures that make it more costly for terrorists to attack successfully Limit the damage in case of an attack Often reactive Transnational terrorism → targeted countries engaging in a ‘protection race’ in hopes of transferring attacks abroad Inclination attenuated if a country has assets + citizes abroad (jeopardize its own interests)
Proactive or offensive policy = seeks to limit or destoy terrorist resources Infiltration of terrorist groups + collecting intelligence + curbing terrorist finances… Transnational terrorism → too few operations because one country’s actions against a common terrorist threat provide pure public good to all targeted countries
Ch. 1 - Introduction 1
Ch. 1 - Introduction
Checkbox Topic 1 - Terrorism and the universe of political violence: definitions Type of notes Reading notes Terrorism = defined by duality between professed ideas + their implementation Terrorism exists only in a cultural + historical context Cultural component more evident in religious terrorist movements e.g. Hamas + al Qaeda = combination of political/pseudo-political aspirations (i.e. destruction of Israel/US) with religious undertone that serves the primary purpose of recruitment Early Palestinian terrorism = political + secular → drift into religiosity after Iranian revolution (’80s) Terrorism continuously reinvents itself = lack of continuity between each generation of terrorists → signal break with the past Types of terrorism Top-down terrorism = state terrorism → far more prevalent throughout history 20th century = advent of totalitarianism Today, bottom-up terrorism ↳ Boundaries between the two = often blurred (e.g. Lenin) Modern terrorism → targets mainly civilians Due to evolution of political structures (evolved towards democracy)+ emergence of mass media (critical component of liberal democracy) Impact of an attack on a free country = broader than that on a place where people have no voice in government + media is state controlled
Terrorism - main definition & historical theory 2
Differences with previous forms of terrorism (e.g. Zealots + assassins…)
- Not religious
- Practices by marginal groups that did not always have clearly defined political objectvies, although they were linked to a wide range of trends (anarchist, populist…) Developed in a very specific geopolitical + geostrategic context
- 19th century = violent century → war = mass phenomenon involving entire societies
- Technology + industrialization gave unleashed phenomenally destructive forms of violence
- Gradual collapse of the Peace of Westphalia order + balance of power
- Raising nationalism Contemporary terrorism = born in Russia → associated with the industrual revolution
Rapoport’s theory
Theory based on modern terrorism → 2nd part of 19th century Wave = cycle of activities in a given time period that is characterized by expansion and contraction phases Contraction → oblivion of terrorism in policy-makers + the public Main features:
- Spatial element International character of terrorism → same/similar activities that develop in different countries but have the same energy
- Energy Main politcal meaning of the wave One wave → many political meanings that coexist
- Organization
- Modern culture Terror is deeply rooted in modern culture
- Science of terror During a wave, technical improvements allow terrorists to develop their expertise + skills (eg. mines → dynamite)
- Relationship with revolution Overriding between terrorism and revolution Revolution = no negative connotation Sometimes revolutions have provided legitimization to terrorism Anarchist wave 19th century - WWI Ideology = anarchism Development of communication + transportation Anticolonial wave lasted around 40 years New left wave 60s - 80s (end of Cold War) Predominant energy → revolutionary new left
Terrorism - main definition & historical theory 3
Presence of right wing and nationalist terrorism Religious wave 60/70s - now (?) Turning point = Iranian Revolution → development of political Islam that took also the form of Islamist terrorism
The Four Waves of Modern Terrorism 2
from paralyzing grip of guilt ↓ Dramatic action repeated again + again = polarize society ↓ Revolution Terror = violence beyond the moral conventions used to regulate violence (i.e. rules of war + punishment) ↳ Terrorism = strategy, not an end Rebels → defined themselves as terrorists Aim = political targets/those who could affect public attitudes Confidence from contemporary events of the time → political events that dramatized new governments vulnerabilities e.g. Czar Alexander II’s effort to transform the Russian system (freed serfs + “westernized” the judicial system + established limited local self-government…) → hope was excited but not fulfilled quickly enough → disappointments → systematic assassination strikes against prominent officials → death of Alexander Methods + tactics Depending on group’s political objectives + specific context Dynamite → assailant usually was killed too = not a weapon a criminal would use Bank robbery to finance activities 1890 - Golden Age of Assassination Monarchs, prime ministers, presidents Assassins moved across international borders International dimension Russians → encouraged + trained other groups Internationalization of campaign of anarchist terror Most affected governments → international police cooperation + better border control Only lasted 3 years = interests of states pulled them in different directions US refused → fear that extensive involvement in European politics might be required + no federal police force Italy refused → if anarchists were returned to their original countries, Italy’s domestic troubles might get worse
Second wave: mostly successful, and a new language
Background Versailles Peace Treaty → principle of self-determination Non-European portions = League of Nation mandates until ready for independence Victors began liquidating their empires + not respond to terrorism After WWII → defeated forced to bandon empires Colonial territories oversea → not made mandates US pressed for the elimination of empires (cold war - fear that Soviets would help the rebels) Terrorist activity = crucial in establishing new states → ss empires dissolved, wave receded Terrorist = negative connotation + political liabilities → described themselves as freddom fighters struggling against government terror Anticolonial struggle = seen as more legitimate Governments also used more “appropriate” language → all violent rebels = terrorists
The Four Waves of Modern Terrorism 3
Methods/tactics Diaspora sources contributed more money → no back robberies Few assassinations → counterproductive Martyrdom = less significant Strategy
- Eliminate police → systematic assassinations of officers and/or their families
- Military units replacing them → produce counter-atrocities
- Increase social support for the cause Guerrila-like actions International dimension Leaders of different national groups acknowledged the common bonds + heritage of an international revolutionary tradition Heroes → national rather than international Received money + weapons + volunteers from abroad Foreign states with kindered populations = active Outside influences changed when the purpose of the terrorist activity + local context = perceived differently Supranational organization Anticolonial terrorists sought to interest the UN in their struggle New states admitted to the UN = former colonial territories → gave anticolonial sentiment in that body more structure + focus + opportunities Anticolonial terrorists as freedom fighters
Third wave: excessive internationalism?
Background Vietnam War Ambivalence among the youth about the value of the existing system Western groups saw themselves as vanguards for the Third World Masses Soviets → encouraged the outbreaks + offered moral support, training, and weapons Nationalism Combined with radicalism e.g. Basques + Kurds Those groups were more durable than any other in the 3rd wave Not successful → countries concerned did not consider themselves as colonial powers = lack of ambivalence necessary for nationalist success When Vietnam War ended, PLO replaced the Viet Cong as heroic model Existence - persistence = credibility to supporters who argued that only terror could remove Israel Strong support from Arab states + Soviet Union Training facilities made available to other groups Resemblances with 1st wave Women = leaders and fighters Theatrical targets
The Four Waves of Modern Terrorism 5
UN conventions → hijaking + hostage taking + attacks on senior government officials + terrorist bombings of a foreign state’s facilities + financing international activities = crimes Term “freedom fighters” no longer used Use of term “terrorism” Still ambiguities → terror serves different ends + some of them are prized e.g. PLO received official UN status
Fourth wave: how unique and how long?
Religion → supplies justifications + organizing principles for a state Islam = heart of the wave Christian terrorism = racist interpretations of the Bible Emerged in American “Chrisian Identity” movements Armed rural communes composed of families withdrew from state to wait for the Second Coming Minimal level of violence Background Political events providing hope for the 4th wave originated in Islam → religion now had more political appeal Iranian Revolution 1979 Iranians inspired + assisted Shiite terror movements outside Iran Beginning of new Islamic century Soviet’s invarion of Afghanistan Resistance forced Soviets out Volunteers from Sunni world Subsidized by US aid Religion had eliminated a secular superpower → important consequences Lands with large Muslim populations in the Soviet Union = new fields for Islamic rebels Afghan → major participants in new + ongoing conflicts Mathods/tactics Introduction of sucide bombing by Shiites in Lebanon Used to push foreign troops outside of Lebanon after the 1982 Israeeli invasion + subsequent peacekeeping mission Used by Tamil Tigers → mainly women Used by Palestinian religious groups → compelled secular PLO elements to emulate them Recruitment pattern Most volunteers = from Arab states Afghan training camps recived Sunnis from 60 countries International dimension Number of terrorist groups declined Size of primary audience Religious community = much larger than any national community Cultural traditions Secular terrorism = mainly from Christian countries
The Four Waves of Modern Terrorism 6
Less fragmentation + divisions in Islamic tradition than Christian one More durable than 3rd wave predecessors Large organizations e.g. al-Qaeda → cells operating in 72 countries American role Iran → the “Great Satan” Aim of Islamic religious groups Destroy American targets Military + civilian installations US military withdrawal from the Middle East Missle attacks against al-Qaeda targets 1st time missiles were used against a group rather than a state Major unintended consequences → turned bin Laden from a marginal figure in the Muslim world to a global celebrity Strikes on American soil → from 1993 Support to Islamic groups that were active in various states of the Sunni world Aim of Islamic religious groups = single Islamic state under the Sharia September 11 Desperate attempt to rejuvenate a failing cause by triggering indiscriminate reactions UN response → more than 100 states joined the attack on Afghanistan End of al-Qaeda → collapsed very quickly Remained visible to operate its extensive training operations → visible groups are vulnerable Was a foreign element in lands uncomfortable with its presence Did not plan for an invasion possibility
Concluding thoughts and questions
International terrorism = recent phenomenon, but continuing presence for 125 years
- Technology
- Doctrine → reflects a modern inclination to rationalize activity or make it efficient
- Spread of democratic ideals → shapes terrorist activities (e.g. nationalism/separatism is most frequently espoused cause) Main themes
- Failure of a democratic reform program
- National self-determination
- Existing systems are not truly democratic
- Antidemocratic → democratic idea is inconceivable without a significant measure of secularism
