Energy Production in Living Organisms: Anabolism, Catabolism, and Cellular Respiration | Appunti di Biologia

ENERGY OF LIVING ORGANISMS:

anabolism: reactions that require ATP (endoergonic) and lead to the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones.

catabolism: reactions that release ATP (exergonic) by breaking down complex molecules into simpler fragments.

oxidoreductive coenzymes-

• NAD(P)H+H+ reduced form, NAD(P)+ oxidized form.

•FAD H2 r e du ce d fo rm , FAD o xi di ze d f or m.

oxidation: addition of oxygen atoms or removal of 2 hydrogens. NADH+H+——NAD+

reduction: removal of oxygen atoms or addition of 2 hydrogens. NAD+—- NADH+H+

CELLULAR RESPIRATION:

process that transfers chemical energy from the glucose molecule to ATP, making it suitable to fuel the endoergonic reactions

necessary for cellular function.cellular respiration is a catabolic process that leads to the oxidation of glucose.

equation of cellular respiration:

glycolysis-

overall equation of glycolysis:

they have location in eukaryotes and prokaryotes, both in cytosol.

it has two phases:

1. energy investment phase: glucose is phosphorylated (ATP is the source of phosphate) to form fructose 1,6-biphosphate, which

is then oxidized to form 2 molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. during this process, 2 molecules of ATP are consumed.

2. energy payoff phase: the molecule of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is gradually oxidized into pyruvic acid, and its

dephosphorylation leads to the net synthesis of 2 molecules of ATP.

fermentation-

in the absence of O2, cellular respiration does not continue after glycolysis, but it accumulates NADH which, through

fermentation, is reoxidized to NAD+.

• lactic: global equation of lactic fermentation for one molecule of glucose:

they are located in eukaryotes and prokaryotes, both in cytosol.

the enzyme is lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), sole energy source for erythrocytes as they lack mitochondria, main metabolic

source for some bacteria.

• alcoholic: global equation of alcoholic fermentation for one molecule of glucose:

they are located in eukaryotes and prokaryotes, both in cytosol.

acetaldehyde and CO2 are intermediate products, the enzymes are pyruvate decarboxylase (to remove CO2 from pyruvate)and

alcohol dehydrogenase. it is the main metabolic source for some fungi, including yeasts, which humans exploit to produce

alcoholic beverages.

oxidative decarboxylation-

global equation of oxidative decarboxylation for one molecule of glucose:

it is located in eukaryotes in mitochondrial matrix and in prokaryotes in cytosol.

the NADH obtained will subsequently generate energy in the form of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. it requires the

presence of mitochondria and oxygen (oxygen is not directly involved in the reaction but is necessary to reoxidize loaded NAOH,

making NAD+ available).

krebs cycle-

the krebs cycle is an amphibolic cycle that integrates many pathways, like cellular respiration or beta-oxidation. it leads to the

complete oxidation of acetyl-CoA, releasing two molecules of CO2.

it being a cycle, there is no global equation.

reactants: acetyl-CoA, 2H2O.

products: 2CO2.

energy obtained: 1GTP ATP; 3NADH, 1FADH2.

it is located in in eukaryotes in mitochondrial matrix and in prokaryotes in cytosol.

Cohazo 6602 6H20

Co Hai 06 ZATP 2P2NAD

2Piruvato 2ATP 2NADH 2H2H20

2Pyruvate 2NADH 2lactate 2

2Pyruvate 2MADH 2Acetaldehyde 2CO2 2Ethanol 2NAD

2Pyruvate 2NAD coenzyme ACOA 2Acetyl CoA 260 2MADH

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ENERGY OF LIVING ORGANISMS:

anabolism: reactions that require ATP (endoergonic) and lead to the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones. catabolism: reactions that release ATP (exergonic) by breaking down complex molecules into simpler fragments. oxidoreductive coenzymes-

NAD(P)H+H+ reduced form, NAD(P)+ oxidized form.
FADH2 reduced form, FAD oxidized form. oxidation: addition of oxygen atoms or removal of 2 hydrogens. NADH+H+——NAD+ reduction: removal of oxygen atoms or addition of 2 hydrogens. NAD+—- NADH+H+ CELLULAR RESPIRATION: process that transfers chemical energy from the glucose molecule to ATP, making it suitable to fuel the endoergonic reactions necessary for cellular function.cellular respiration is a catabolic process that leads to the oxidation of glucose. equation of cellular respiration: glycolysis- overall equation of glycolysis: they have location in eukaryotes and prokaryotes, both in cytosol. it has two phases:

energy investment phase: glucose is phosphorylated (ATP is the source of phosphate) to form fructose 1,6-biphosphate, which is then oxidized to form 2 molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. during this process, 2 molecules of ATP are consumed.
energy payoff phase: the molecule of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is gradually oxidized into pyruvic acid, and its dephosphorylation leads to the net synthesis of 2 molecules of ATP. fermentation- in the absence of O2, cellular respiration does not continue after glycolysis, but it accumulates NADH which, through fermentation, is reoxidized to NAD+.

lactic: global equation of lactic fermentation for one molecule of glucose: they are located in eukaryotes and prokaryotes, both in cytosol. the enzyme is lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), sole energy source for erythrocytes as they lack mitochondria, main metabolic source for some bacteria.
alcoholic: global equation of alcoholic fermentation for one molecule of glucose: they are located in eukaryotes and prokaryotes, both in cytosol. acetaldehyde and CO2 are intermediate products, the enzymes are pyruvate decarboxylase (to remove CO2 from pyruvate)and alcohol dehydrogenase. it is the main metabolic source for some fungi, including yeasts, which humans exploit to produce alcoholic beverages. oxidative decarboxylation- global equation of oxidative decarboxylation for one molecule of glucose: it is located in eukaryotes in mitochondrial matrix and in prokaryotes in cytosol. the NADH obtained will subsequently generate energy in the form of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. it requires the presence of mitochondria and oxygen (oxygen is not directly involved in the reaction but is necessary to reoxidize loaded NAOH, making NAD+ available). krebs cycle- the krebs cycle is an amphibolic cycle that integrates many pathways, like cellular respiration or beta-oxidation. it leads to the complete oxidation of acetyl-CoA, releasing two molecules of CO2. it being a cycle, there is no global equation. reactants: acetyl-CoA, 2H2O. products: 2CO2. energy obtained: 1GTP ATP; 3NADH, 1FADH2. it is located in in eukaryotes in mitochondrial matrix and in prokaryotes in cytosol.

Cohazo 6602 6H

Co Hai^06 ZATP^2 P^2 NAD

2 Piruvato 2 ATP^2 NADH^2 H^ 2H

2 Pyruvate 2 NADH 2 lactate 2

2 Pyruvate 2 MADH^2 Acetaldehyde 2 CO2 2 Ethanol 2 NAD

2 Pyruvate 2 NAD coenzyme A COA 2 Acetyl CoA^260 2 MADH

the FADH2 and NADH obtained will contribute to the accumulation of energy as ATP. the GTP produced will subsequently be converted into ATP: it requires mitochondria and oxygen and has in total 8 steps. electron transport chain- there is no single global equation for the electron transport chain. reactants: NADH, FADH2, 02. products: NAD+, FAD, H20. it is located in

eukaryotes in inner mitochondrial membrane. are obtained 36 ATP, the difference compered to the prokaryotes is due to the fact that ATP synthase eukaryotes need to spend 2ATP to transport the reducing potential of the 2NADH produced by glycolysis into the mitochondria.
prokaryotes in cell membrane and cell wall. are obtained 38 ATP, the entire cellular respiration takes place in the same environment, the cytosol. in eukaryotes, there are 4 membrane-bound protein complexes, including cytochromes, it requires the presence of mitochondria for eukaryotes and oxygen, electrons travel from reduced coenzymes which oxidize through protein complexes to o2 which reduces to h2o, which is the final electron acceptor, the chemical energy contained in the coenzymes is transformed into an electrochemical gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. oxidative phosphorylation- the electrochemical potential difference is utilized by ATP synthase, a molecular turbine that synthesizes ATP by harnessing the flow of protons returning to the matrix. 1 FADH= 2,5 ATP= 3ATP. 1 FADH2= 1,5 ATP= 2ATP it is located in eukaryotes in inner mitochondrial membrane and in prokaryotes in cell membrane. if the correct proportion is considered, the energy yield per glucose molecule would be for eukaryotes 32 ATP and for prokaryotes 34ATP. if it consider the more commonly ratio used, the energy yield per molecule of glucose would be for eukaryotes 36ATP and 38ATP for prokaryotes. CHLOROPHYLL PHOTOSYNTHESIS: process that converts the electromagnetic energy of light into chemical energy. it takes place in chloroplasts and it is an anabolic process aimed at producing glucose. overall equation of chlorophyll photosynthesis: it is an endoergonic process, utilizes CO2, H2O and solar energy. it is divided in 2 phases:

light-dependent phase: it is located in thylakoids of the chloroplasts. it utilizes electromagnetic light energy to synthesize ATP and NADPH, which are necessary for the light-independent phase, there are 2 photosystems containing various photosynthetic pigments that trap the photonic energy of the sun, the process is similar to the electron transport chain.
light-independent phase: the location is the stroma of chloroplasts. it utilizes ATP and NADPH to synthesize glucose, can occur in both the presence and absence of light, it is a cyclic anabolic process that leads to the production of a glucose from ribulose-1,5-biphosphate and CO2 thanks to the enzyme RuBisCo. it uses ATP and NADPH produced during the light-dependent phase, which are then re-oxidized to NADP+ and ADP+Pi.

Energy Production in Living Organisms: Anabolism, Catabolism, and Cellular Respiration, Appunti di Biologia

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ENERGY OF LIVING ORGANISMS:

Cohazo 6602 6H

Co Hai^06 ZATP^2 P^2 NAD

2 Piruvato 2 ATP^2 NADH^2 H^ 2H

2 Pyruvate 2 NADH 2 lactate 2

2 Pyruvate 2 MADH^2 Acetaldehyde 2 CO2 2 Ethanol 2 NAD

2 Pyruvate 2 NAD coenzyme A COA 2 Acetyl CoA^260 2 MADH

6 CO2 6H20 6

2H20 ADD^ PITZMADP^02 ATP^2 MADPH^ 2H