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CHAPTER 1: LINGUISTIC FORMS AND FUNCTIONS
The functions of language
The analysis of discourse is the analysis of language in use. While some linguists are focused on determining the properties of a language, the discourse analyst is interested in what that language is used for. We can describe two major functions of language: transactional function , which language serves in the expression of “content”, and interactional function , which is involved in social relations and personal attitudes.
The transactional view
If we want to talk about this, we should say that some linguists and linguistic philosophers believe that the most important function of language is the communication of information, or that is “the intentional transmission of factual, or propositional, information”. We shall call the language which is used to transmit “factual or propositional information” primarily transactional language. It is important that the recipient correctly gets the informative detail: thus if a policeman gives directions to a traveller or a scientist describe an experiment, in each case it is important that the speaker should make what he says (or writes) clear. There will be unfortunate consequences if the message isn’t understood by the recipient.
The interactional view
While linguists and linguistic philosophers give particular attention to the use of language to transmit “factual or propositional information”, sociologist and sociolinguists give attention to the use of language to establish and maintain social relationships. As we know, human interaction is characterized by the primarily interpersonal rather than the primarily transactional use of language: for example, when two strangers are waiting for a bus trembling with cold and one turns to the other and says “for godness’ sake, it’s too cold”, it is difficult to suppose that the intention of the speaker is to communicate information: the speaker just wants to be friendly and to talk. To conclude, written language
is, in general, used for primarily transactional purposes, but sometimes written registers can be used to maintain social relationships: for example, “thank you” letters, love letters, game of consequences, etc.
Spoken and written registers: manner of production
As we know, we can underline some differences between speakers and writers. We should begin with speakers. The speaker can use a full range of “voice quality” effects (as well as facial expression, postural and gestural systems), paralinguistic cues which are denied to the writer. There are, of course, advantages for the speaker because he can observe his interlocutor and, if he wants to, modify what he is saying, whereas the writer has to imagine the reader’s reaction.
The writer may look over what he has already written, he can choose a particular word, looking it up in the dictionary if necessary, he can check his progress, he can reorder what he has written, and even change his mind about what he wants to say. So while the speaker is under pressure to keep the conversation going, the writer is under no such pressure.
The representation of discourse: texts
We should say something about some of the problems of representing written and spoken language. We will use the term text , to refer to the verbal record of a communicative act.
The relationship between speech and writing
As we know, we use speech for the establishment and maintenance of human relationships (primarily interactional use) and written language for the transference of information (primarily transactional use). But sometimes speech can be used for a transmission of factual information, especially when the recipient writes down the details that he’s told: for example, a doctor writes down his patient’s symptoms, an architect writes down his client’s requirements, we write down friends addresses, telephone numbers and so on. However, the major difference between speech and
- The speaker can use a large number of fillers : well , I think , you know , of course , and so on.
To resume, we should say that in written language we can find complete sentences with subordinations and frequent modifications, a rich lexis and well-organized structure, so the writer usually takes time in its construction; in spoken language, instead, there are frequent pauses, repetitions, incomplete sentences, fillers, and a generalized vocabulary.
To conclude, we need to say that there are many different forms of spoken language, depending on dialectal differences, accent differences and so no. But there is an important distinction: the distinction between the speech of those whose language is influenced by written language forms and the speech of those whose language is unfluenced by written forms of language: for example, the speech of an academic may have a great deal in common with written language forms, but for the majority of population, even of a “literate” country, spoken language will have very much less in common with the written language.
Sentence and utterance
