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DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
CHAPTER 1- WHAT IS DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
Discourse analysis is a branch of linguistics that studies how sentences and utterances combine to form texts and interactions , examining their role within social contexts. It focuses on how people use language in real-life situations to perform functions such as joking, arguing, persuading, flirting, and expressing their identity or group membership.
1. The ambiguity of language - The meaning is never absolutely clear Language ambiguity means that meaning is never completely clear. Communication often involves ideas that aren’t directly expressed in the words we say, even when we think we’re being clear. For example, asking, “Do you have a pen?” doesn’t directly mean you want to borrow it; it simply asks if the person owns one. The listener interprets the hidden meaning, often without realizing it, by “figuring out” what’s implied. This shows that people don’t always say exactly what they mean , and they don’t always mean exactly what they say. It’s not about lying— language is naturally ambiguous. It’s impossible to always be precise because language isn’t perfect , and we often try to express multiple ideas at once. 2. Language in the world - It’s ‘’context dependent’’ To truly understand what someone means, we need to think about the social context of the conversation. Factors like who is speaking, where and when the conversation happens , and who the message is for can change how we interpret it. For example, if a teacher asks a student, “Do you have a pen?” before an exam, the question is likely about checking if the student is ready, not a hesitation to ask for one. Language is closely tied to its context —it exists in the physical world, in relationships between people, in history, and alongside other languages and texts. These elements shape how we interpret and understand what’s being said. 3. Language and social identity - Language use is tied to social identity Discourse doesn’t just reflect who is speaking or writing —it also shapes them. When people communicate, they show who they are and reveal their relationships with others. Through language, they express identities that are flexible and change depending on the situation. For example, the way someone talks at a dance club on Friday night is different from how they speak in the office on Monday morning. This doesn’t mean their personality changes; instead, they adapt their language to suit the setting, showing different sides of themselves. 4. Language and other modes - It’s combined with tone of voice, facial expressions and gestures Language is just one way we show who we are. Our gestures, tone of voice, facial expressions, and clothing also express our different identities. These non-verbal cues , combined with language, play a big role in shaping and showing who we are socially. Together, they help us communicate the many sides of our personality. Understanding this can explain why people see the world differently. Discourse analysis isn’t just about how we use language—it’s also about studying romance, friendship, psychology, politics, power, and much more. Over the years people have approached the study of discourse in many different ways, and now we have three different perspectives based on three different definitions of what discourse is: 1. Formal approach to discourse The formal approach to discourse focuses on language beyond the sentence level , analyzing how sentences and clauses combine to form cohesive and coherent texts. It analyzes the rules and structures that create textual unity. This perspective originates with linguist Zellig Harris , who coined the term " discourse analysis ". His method, called distributional analysis, explore how linguistic features co-occur in texts and relate to their social contexts Harris's ideas were influenced by earlier efforts in literary studies, such as the work of the Russian Formalists, who analyzed the "grammar" of stories. Two key concepts in the formal approach are:
- Cohesion : The linguistic features, like grammar and vocabulary , that link parts of a text together. (pronouns, conjunctions, and lexical repetition).
- Coherence : The logical organization and overall structure of a text , ensuring it meets genre expectations and makes sense in its context.
By examining cohesion and coherence, the formal approach seeks to understand how texts achieve unity and how their structure corresponds to both linguistic rules and social functions.
2. Functional approach The functional approach defines discourse as "language in use" , focusing on how people employ language in specific situations to accomplish goals, express intentions, and interpret meaning. Unlike formal approaches, it emphasizes the social context in which communication occurs , as understanding language often requires considering its situational backdrop. Key concepts in the functional approach are:
- Language is seen as a form of action. When people speak or write, they perform acts like apologizing, promising, requesting, or threatening.
- Discourse facilitates or complicates specific actions and activities.
- People use language strategically to communicate their interpretation of situations, manage relationships, and achieve social goals. This approach highlights the dynamic, purposeful nature of language, examining not just what is said but also why and how it is used within its social and cultural contexts. 3. Social approach The social approach defines discourse as a form of social practice , emphasizing how language reflects and shapes social identities, relationships, and participation in groups or institutions. It views language not just as a tool for communication but as a way to construct and express who we are in relation to others. Key concepts in the social approach are:
- The way people speak reflects their roles, beliefs, and values.
- Michel Foucault argued that language reveals a person's knowledge and ties certain discourses to specific systems of knowledge , such as scientific or cultural frameworks.
While the formal, functional, and social approaches to discourse are distinct, they are interconnected. Discourse analysts study what gives a text or conversation its texture , the qualities that make it cohesive, meaningful, and recognizable as a unified whole. Texture is created through cohesion and coherence.
CHAPTER 2- TEXTS AND TEXTURE, COHESION AND COHERENCE According to Halliday’s theory , text is a meaningful collection of words that makes sense in a particular situation, and the meaning of texts are gained through particular choices which every speaker has to make, based on the meaning and the sense he wants to spread. It’s different from just a random list of words because it has coherence and cohesion.
- Coherence is about how the text makes sense to the reader based on their background knowledge. For example, if you read a shopping list, you understand that it’s for buying groceries because you know what shopping lists are for. This background knowledge helps you make sense of the words.
- Cohesion is about how the words and sentences are connected within the text. For instance, in a sentence, the words are linked together in a way that helps you understand the meaning. If I say, "I bought milk and tomatoes," the words are connected through grammar and structure (like "and").
Halliday introduced the idea of texture in language , which is the quality that makes a set of words function as a unified whole, rather than just a random sequence of sentences. Additionally, the meaning of a text comes from the choices we make when we use language. These choices aren’t random; they reflect the context and relationships between the words and ideas in the text.
Halliday and Hasan identify two main types of linguistic devices used to create cohesion in texts: grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion.
Grammatical cohesion includes:
- Conjunction (using ‘connecting words’)
- Reference (using a pronoun to refer to another word)
- Substitution (substituting one word or phrase for another word or phrase)
- Ellipses (leaving something out)
There are three important aspects of this definition which need to be further explained:
1. Genres are communicative events Genre analysis studies different types of texts (like emails, job applications, and news articles) and how they are used in society. For example, a news article informs people, while a job application letter aims to persuade an employer. Genres help define social roles and activities , setting expectations for how people should communicate. Even though each genre has constraints, skilled users can creatively work within these rules to achieve their own goals. Genre analysis helps us understand how texts are used to communicate ideas and perform tasks in social contexts. 2. Conventions and Constraints Genres are ways of communicating that are shaped by what we want to achieve. For example, a job application letter has a specific goal: to convince an employer that you’re the right person for the job. Because of that goal, it only makes sense to include information that helps achieve that purpose, like your qualifications and experience. Adding unrelated details would make it less effective.
Each genre also has rules about how things should be organized. In a job application letter, for example, it’s expected that you start by clearly stating the position you’re applying for. This is a convention, or a standard way of doing things, that makes communication clearer and easier for everyone involved.
These rules aren’t just for efficiency—they also show that you understand how things are done in that context. When employers read your job application, they’re not just looking at your qualifications; they’re also checking if you know how to write a proper application letter. If you follow the rules well, it shows that you know how to communicate properly and that you understand the expectations of the workplace.
3. Creativity Sometimes, the most effective texts are those that break the rules or push boundaries. Expert communicators may mix different genres together or change the usual order of things to make their text stand out or to catch attention.
However, this kind of creativity comes with risks. The key is that any rule-breaking has to still fit the purpose of the text and the context in which it's used. For example, writing a job application letter as a sonnet might be a clever move if you're applying for a job as an editor at a literary magazine, but it would be out of place and probably ineffective if you were applying for a job as a software engineer.
Discourse Communities Genres help us get things done and also show who we are and where we belong. For example, in a hospital, doctors use medical charts and prescriptions to help patients, but these tools also help define who the doctors are within the medical community. Similarly, students and teachers use textbooks, exams, and presentations to carry out teaching and learning tasks.
Discourse communities , as described by John Swales , are groups of people who share common goals and use specific genres to achieve them. For instance, in a medical community, doctors share a common goal of treating patients, and the genres they use help them reach this goal.
Genres also help shape and define the roles of people in these communities. When you know how to use a genre properly, it shows that you understand the community's rules and goals, which can also signal your level of expertise or education.
Genres are types of texts that follow certain recognizable structures to help people achieve specific communicative goals. These structures are not random ; they are organized into steps, often called " moves ," that guide how the text is built and presented. The way a genre is structured depends on what it aims to accomplish. For instance, in academic articles, the introduction often follows a pattern identified by John Swales , who outlined four key moves:
- Establishing the field by explaining its importance.
- Summarizing existing research to show what is already known.
- Creating a research space by identifying gaps, raising questions, or highlighting problems.
- Introducing the current study by explaining its purpose and objectives. Not all genres are as rigid as academic writing. Some, like informal conversations or creative works, have more flexible structures , reflecting the diversity of purposes and audiences.
The genre of personal advertisements , often found in newspapers or online dating sites , follows a consistent structure to achieve its communicative goals. Typically, a personal ad consists of five main moves:
- Self-description
- Description of the qualities of the desired person
- Desired relationship
- Additional information or playful elements
- Contact information In personal advertisements , the genre is typically very conventionalized , with clear expectations about what information must be included. Genres can evolve through creative approaches: -Genre-bending : This involves breaking or altering the established conventions of a genre without entirely discarding its structure. This approach can make the text feel fresh or unique. For example, in personal advertisements, advertisers might avoid exaggerated self-promotion—typically expected in such ads—and instead adopt a tone of modesty or sincerity. This departure from convention can make the ad stand out, appearing more genuine and relatable. -Genre-blending : This involves mixing conventions from different genres. Advertisers might blend elements of humor, irony, or other stylistic features from different genres to create something unique. This approach allows the advertiser to distance themselves from the stereotypical image of someone posting a personal ad while still identifying with the genre. The goal of both genre-bending and genre-blending is to make the advertisement feel more personal and humanized, distinguishing the advertiser from others while still maintaining the core structure of the genre. Both techniques can be effective if they enhance the communicative purpose, though they must b e carefully executed.
CHAPTER 4- DISCOURSE AND IDEOLOGY Texts are never neutral; they always reflect particular perspectives and ideologies , shaping how readers perceive the world. An ideology refers to a system of beliefs about what is good, bad, right, wrong, or normal, and these beliefs influence how people view themselves and their relationships with others. While ideologies can create a sense of belonging within a group, they also marginalize or exclude ideas, people, or identities that don't fit within those norms. Thus, texts play a crucial role in constructing social realities, promoting specific ideologies, and guiding how people define and express their identities within a broader social context. By understanding these mechanisms, we can critically examine how texts influence not just communication, but also beliefs that shape our world.
‘Whos Doing Whats’ Michael Halliday’s theory of language highlights that when we use language, we are fulfilling three functions at once:
- Ideational function: We represent the world through language, choosing words to describe people, things, or actions. For example, the phrase "man and wife" in a wedding ceremony represents the groom and bride as unequal, with the man having an independent identity and the woman’s identity being tied to the man’s, whereas "husband and wife" suggests equality. Similarly, the way processes are described constructs relationships between participants, known as transitivity. In traditional ceremonies, phrases like "you may now kiss the bride" position the man as the active participant and the woman as passive, reinforcing gender roles. However, recent changes in wording, such as "you may now kiss each other," reflect evolving societal attitudes towards equality in relationships.
- Interpersonal function: The interpersonal function of language , as identified by Halliday, involves constructing relationships through words chosen to express certainty, obligation, and other aspects of communication. In the case of the wedding ceremony, the phrase "You may now kiss the bride" is a polite request rather than a command , implying permission and respect.
- Textual function: Language helps organize ideas into coherent, cohesive texts. The style of speaking or writing, such as formal or informal language, plays a role in how we construct relationships. For example, the formal phrase "You may now kiss the bride" creates a respectful distance between the officiant and the couple, reinforcing the formality of the occasion.
Halliday’s concepts are closely related to what James Paul Gee refers to as social languages or registers —the way language varies depending on the social context. The language we use indicates which group we belong to and shapes how we relate to others. For instance, we might use a more formal register
- United States' message : "SURGEON GENERAL’S WARNING: Smoking By Pregnant Women May Result in Fetal Injury, Premature Birth, And Low Birth Weight" uses technical and formal language , portraying the author as an expert and creating more distance between the writer and the reader.
These examples demonstrate how social languages shape the relationship between authors and readers , constructing both the author's identity and the reader’s position. Texts guide readers into specific "reading positions", which influence how they interpret the message and the author's stance on the issue. Critical discourse analysts often combine textual analysis with ethnographic research (such as interviews, observations, and historical research) to uncover the deeper ideological impact of texts and their social influences.
CHAPTER 5- SPOKEN DISCOURSE AND THE TEXTURE OF TALK Speech and writing differ in several key ways that shape how they are used and understood:
- Interactivity : Speech is more interactive than writing. While written communication can receive feedback , such as comments on a blog post, the responses are typically delayed. Speech , on the other hand, occurs in real time , allowing for immediate exchanges. This enables speakers to adapt their messages dynamically based on their listeners' reactions, fostering a co-constructed and fluid interaction.
- Transience : Speech is more transient and spontaneous (ephemeral) compared to writing. Speech is often improvised and fleeting unless recorded , making it harder to revisit or analyze after the fact. Writing , by contrast, is generally more permanent , making it subject to revisions and analysis, which allows it to be studied repeatedly.
- Explicitness : Speech is often less explicit than writing because it relies on non-verbal cues , such as gestures, facial expressions, and tone of voice, to convey meaning. Additionally, spoken communication occurs within a shared physical and situational context, allowing for the use of context-dependent expressions like "this" or "there" that listeners can easily interpret in the moment. Writing , lacking these visual and situational aids, requires greater precision and clarity to ensure the message is understood.
- Blending Forms : Certain communication modes, like instant messaging, combine elements of both speech and writing. These forms share the interactivity and spontaneity of spoken language and the structure and permanence of writing. Such hybrid formats demonstrate how the boundaries between speech and writing can blur, adapting to new contexts and technological mediums.
Making Sense of Conversations A key challenge in spoken discourse is that people often don’t explicitly say what they mean , leaving listeners to interpret their intended meaning. This challenge is addressed through three analytical approaches:
- Pragmatics examines how language is used to perform actions , such as making requests or offering apologies. It focuses on how listeners deduce speakers' intended actions and respond appropriately, emphasizing the logical conditions necessary for interpreting utterances. Influential figures like Austin, Searle, and Grice have shaped this field, particularly through concepts like speech acts and conversational implicature , which highlight the intended pragmatic force behind words.
- Conversation Analysis (CA ) studies the procedural rules and methods that participants use to manage and interpret conversations. It focuses on the dynamic and cooperative nature of spoken interactions , analyzing how speakers structure their turns, handle interruptions, and achieve mutual understanding within the flow of conversation.
- Interactional Sociolinguistics explores how meaning is shaped by social relationships and activities. It examines factors such as status, politeness strategies, and contextualization cues —like tone of voice, gestures, or body language— that influence interpretation. This approach highlights how language use reflects and negotiates social roles and cultural norms. Together, these approaches provide a comprehensive framework for understanding the complexities of spoken discourse , from the logical underpinnings of meaning to the social and contextual factors that shape communication.
In understanding written texts and conversations, texture is fundamental. Texture arises from two primary elements: the relationships between different parts of a text and the expectations that participants bring
to the interaction. In conversations, texture involves the interaction between the communication structure and the participants' expectations of meaning and behavior.
One of the key ideas in pragmatics is that people engage in conversations with the expectation that others will behave logically. Philosopher Paul Grice introduced the cooperative principle , which assumes that participants in a conversation will generally cooperate to make their contributions understandable by following shared expectations about communication. Grice identified four main maxims that people typically follow in conversation:
- Maxim of Quality : We expect others to say what is true.
- Maxim of Relevance : We expect contributions to be relevant to the topic. -Maxim of Manner : We expect communication to be clear and unambiguous. -Maxim of Quantity : We expect others to provide the right amount of information —neither too much nor too little.
However, these maxims are not rigid rules ; they are general principles. In real conversations, people often violate these maxims. For example, one might say something untrue, make irrelevant statements, be unclear, or offer too much or too little information. The key point Grice made is that flouting these maxims is not accidental —it often serves a purpose. The violation of a maxim creates implicature , which refers to the implied meaning that is suggested without being directly stated. When speakers flout a maxim, listeners, aware of the cooperative principle, attempt to infer the indirect meaning behind the speaker's words. People flout maxims for various reasons, such as politeness , avoiding hurt feelings, or not wanting to be too accountable for their statements. However, flouting does not always indicate implicature ; sometimes people simply lie or speak unclearly. For flouting a maxim to create meaningful implicature, it must be done within the context of the cooperative principle. The speaker must assume that the listener will recognize the flouting and that the implied meaning is understandable.
How we do things with words Pragmatics , a branch of linguistics, focuses on how people use language to perform social actions such as making requests, promises... A significant contribution to this field was given by the philosopher John Austin , who introduced the concept of performatives. Performatives are utterances that don’tn merely describe actions but actually perform them when spoken (ex. I promise). Austin's insight was important because it challenged the traditional philosophical focus on the truth or falsity of statements. He argued that the significance of many utterances lies not in their truth value but in their ability to perform actions , which he called speech acts. Speech acts can include assertions, requests, commands, promises, and more. Austin distinguished three key dimensions in speech acts:
- locutionary force : the literal meaning of the words used. (the door is open - we’re just describing it). - illocutionary force : the intended action the speaker aims to perform with their utterance (close the door - we’re making a request)
- perlocutionary force : the actual effect the words have on the listener (to close the door).
Understanding speech acts can be complex , especially when people communicate indirectly. Austin also introduced the concept of felicity conditions , which are necessary for a speech act to be successful. These conditions include: ● Convention : There are specific words and phrases that must be used in the right way for the speech act to work. For example, in a wedding ceremony, only an officiant can use the correct words to legally marry two people. ● Authority : The person performing the speech act must have the right authority. For instance, only a judge can issue a sentence in a courtroom. ● Appropriate Audience : The listener of the speech act must understand the message and be in a position to respond or act. In the case of a marriage pronouncement, it must be directed at people who are legally eligible to marry. ● Context : The situation in which the speech act occurs must be appropriate for it to be effective. For example, a ship captain may have the authority to marry people, but only while on board the ship. Interpreting speech acts means understanding both the literal meaning of the words and the context in which they are spoken. The listener plays a crucial role by relying on the cooperative principle of communication , which assumes that speakers generally follow shared conversational norms to make their messages comprehensible. Context is equally important—it includes the situation , the relationships between participants , and the cultural or situational background. These elements help listeners decode the speaker’s true intention beyond the surface meaning of their words.
- Involvement strategies: These help us show closeness or friendliness with others. They might include using nicknames, speaking informally, or asking personal questions. These strategies signal warmth but can also assert control, like when teachers use them with young students.
- Independence strategies: These show respect by maintaining some distance. We might use formal language, avoid being direct, or apologise to not seem intrusive. This approach is used to avoid overstepping boundaries and is common when we want to show politeness or respect.
These strategies balance two core needs we all have in social interactions:
- The need to feel loved, which we express through friendliness (positive face).
- The need to feel respected and unbothered , which we show by giving others space (negative face).
‘’Framing strategies’’ help us make sense of conversations by interpreting what people say based on the context , or "frame", of the interaction. These frames are like mental templates for different activities , guiding us on how to interpret words and actions. For example, a doctor saying, "Please take off your clothes" means something very different in a medical setting than it would in a private context. Our understanding relies on the frame —the activity type and setting. Each interaction has a primary framework that guides our expectations.
We always approach interactions with certain sets of expectations about how independence and involvement strategies will be used to communicate information about power and intimacy. We call these expectations to face systems. Most people enter interaction with three basic ideas:
- in interactions where the parties are socially distant but relatively equal, both parties are likely to use independence strategies (deference face system);
- in interactions where people are close and relatively equal , they are likely to use involvement strategies (solidarity face system);
- in interactions in which one person has more power than the other, the more powerful one is more likely to use involvement strategies and the less powerful one is more likely to use independence strategies.
One further factor, that determines which strategy a person will use to communicate his or her relationship with another person, is the topic of the conversation he or she is engaged in. In cases in which the topic of the conversation is serious or potentially embarrassing for either party, independence strategies will be more common , whereas in situations where the topic is less serious , the outcome more predictable and the weight of imposition seen to be relatively small, involvement strategies are more common.
Framing and contextualization cues When we talk to someone, we’re not just saying words —we’re also giving clues about how we want those words to be understood and what we’re trying to do. Are we joking? Are we serious? These clues are what we call contextualization cues (show what we mean beyond the actual words we say).
The " frame " is the context or situation that helps people know what’s going on. There are two types:
- Primary frameworks : These are stable , general expectations about certain situations. For example, in a lecture, you expect the professor to teach, and in a doctor’s office, you expect medical advice.
- Interactive frames : These are more flexible and change moment by moment. For example, in a conversation, you might go from joking to giving advice, and then back to chatting casually.
- Verbal : The words we choose and how we organize them. For example, a doctor might start a consultation with small talk about the weather and then switch to a medical tone by saying, “So, how are you feeling?” This shift often happens with phrases called discourse markers like “okay”, “so”, or “well”. These words show the transition between activities or ideas.
- Non-verbal : Things like gestures, facial expressions, or the tone and speed of our voice. For instance, a smile or a change in tone can show that you’re joking, while a serious expression might signal you’re being critical.
The way we use these cues depends on the context of the conversation and our relationship with the other person. For example, you might speak differently to a close friend than to a stranger. These cues also help us negotiate what’s happening at the moment. If someone misunderstands your intention, you might adjust your tone or rephrase to clarify.
CHAPTER 7- CONTEXT, CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION
The meaning of an utterance is deeply tied to the context in which it occurs. To fully understand what someone is saying, we need to consider not just the words they use, but the situation, the people involved, and the goals they have. This is what scholars have long argued—meaning doesn’t live solely in the words themselves, but is shaped by the circumstances around the conversation.
Bronislaw Malinowski Malinowski , an anthropologist, contributed a key idea to our understanding of context: meaning is not just in the words, it is embedded in social relationships, goals, beliefs, and activities. For Malinowski, to understand language fully, we must understand the situation, the participants involved, their relationships, and the broader cultural context. Over time, scholars have tried to break down context into more manageable pieces, and two major models help us to think about the various components involved.
John Firth’s Model (1957) Firth proposed that context could be broken down into three main components:
- Participants : This refers to the people involved in the conversation.
- Situation : This looks at the objects in the situation—the physical context. What’s going on around the conversation? Is it a formal meeting, a casual chat, or something else? The physical setting (like a room or a situation) is crucial because it influences how we interpret words.
- Effect : This refers to the goal that the speaker is trying to achieve.
Firth’s model does a good job of pinpointing central aspects of context, but it leaves us wondering why certain things are included and others aren’t. How do we determine which aspects of the context matter the most? For example, should we also consider the speaker's emotions or their past experiences?
Michael Halliday’s Model Halliday took Firth’s ideas and expanded on them with his own three-part model. He focused on what he called register — the way language changes in different social situations:
- Fiel : This refers to the social action or what’s actually happening in the conversation. Is it a discussion about politics, a casual chat about the weather, or a professional conversation about a project?
- Tenor : Tenor is about the participants, their roles, and their relationships. Are they equals, or is there a power dynamic? A conversation with a friend will sound very different from one with a boss or teacher.
- Mode : This refers to the form of communication. Is it spoken or written? Is it formal or informal? The mode also considers the rhetorical role of language —whether the speaker is trying to persuade, entertain, inform, or something else.
Halliday’s contribution with the concept of register helps us see that language is not static —it shifts depending on the situation. But again, we’re left asking: What elements of the context are most relevant? Both Firth’s and Halliday’s models help us understand the components of context, but they face some limitations:
- Relevance : How do we decide which aspects of context are most important in any given interaction? Should we focus more on the participants (who is involved) or the situation (what is happening)?
- Categorization : Both models offer categories to help us break down context, but life doesn’t always fit neatly into boxes.
Context and Competence Dell Hymes's SPEAKING model offers a framework to analyze how communication is shaped by its social and cultural context. It highlights how various factors —such as the setting, participants, and purpose— influence the way people interact and use language. This model provides eight interconnected components:
- Setting : The time and place of communication (where and when the event happens - a classroom at 9am).
- Participants : The people involved and their roles.
- Ends : The goals and outcomes of the communication (why communication is happening).
- Act sequence : The order of speech acts (the structure of communication).
- Key : The tone or manner of communication.
- Instrumentalities : The channels and forms of communication used (spoken, written, sung…).
- Norms : The social rules governing interaction - unwritten rules about what’s appropriate (at a library, it’s expected to whisper).
- Genre : The type of communicative event (e.g., casual conversation, debate, a joke).
In short, cultural tools come with affordances (what they enable) and constraints (what they limit). The tools people use can affect their actions and even shape their identities. Different media and genres (like pictures, text, or gestures) create different opportunities and limitations for communication.
Mediated discourse analysis focuses on "sites of engagement" , which are situations where social actors (people), cultural tools (like language, objects, and technology), and social relationships come together to shape actions. Unlike traditional views of context, which focus mainly on texts, sites of engagement center on social actions and how all the available cultural tools influence them.
Ron and Suzanne Wong Scollon define three main elements in a site of engagement:
- Discourses in place : The tools and resources available in a situation , such as signs, objects, or technology, which guide actions. For example, street signs or phone apps help people navigate the environment.
- Interaction order : The relationships between people involved in the situation. This refers to how the behavior of one person may influence or be influenced by others. For instance, how pedestrians move across a street can depend on whether they are alone or with others.
- Historical body : The personal knowledge and past experiences that influence how a person acts in a situation. For example, someone who is familiar with the area will cross the street differently from someone unfamiliar with it.
CHAPTER 9- MULTIMODAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS Multimodal discourse analysis expands the concept of discourse to include nonverbal communication, music, and other forms of expression. It focuses on multiple modes of communication, such as gestures, facial expressions, posture in face-to-face interactions. It also includes visual elements like pictures, charts, and graphs in written texts, as well as the choice of font and the layout of text on a page or screen.
Rather than analysing these modes separately from speech and writing, multimodal discourse analysis seeks to understand how all modes work together in communication. The goal is to explore how different modes interact to create meaning , emphasising that all discourse involves the combination of multiple modes working in concert.
Multimodal discourse analysis can generally be divided into two types:
- one which focuses on ‘texts’ like magazines, comic books, web pages, films and works of art.
- the other focuses more on social interaction.
-The most influential approach to the multimodal analysis of texts is influenced by the study of systemic functional grammar as it was developed by Halliday. He states that grammar is a system of ‘resources ’ for making meaning shaped by the things people need to do with language. Applying this to multimodal discourse analysis, he proposes that even images, music and architecture also have a kind of ‘grammar’.
-The second approach to multimodal discourse analysis is associated with the analysis of spoken discourse, especially conversation analysis , interactional sociolinguistics , and the ethnography of speaking. In analysing multimodality in interaction, analysts pay attention to many of the same kinds of things they do when they analyse spoken language, especially: -sequentiality, is how elements are ordered with one another. -simultaneity, how elements that occur at the same time affect one another.
For example, In written and spoken language, information is presented sequentially , following the logic of time. The author or speaker controls the flow, deciding when to reveal certain facts. In contrast, images follow the logic of space , presenting all elements simultaneously , leaving viewers to decide the order of perception. Images can also communicate subtle details , like specific shades of color , which language can only approximate with general terms, such as "pink." One of the key preoccupations of multimodal interaction analysis is the fact that when we are interacting we are almost always involved in multiple activities. We might, for example, be chatting with a friend at the beauty salon. Multimodal interaction analysis gives us a way to examine how people use different communicative modes to manage simultaneous activities.
Because different modes alter the kinds of meanings we can make , we need to learn to adjust our discourse in different ways every time we move from one mode to another. This phenomenon is called resemiotization —the process by which meanings shift and evolve as they are shaped by different modes
of communication. Each mode, whether linguistic, visual, or physical, contributes uniquely to how meaning is constructed, reinterpreted, or transformed within a specific context.
The most important point multimodal discourse analyst makes is that modes can never really be analysed in isolation from other modes (although this is what most discourse analysts do with the modes of spoken and written language). The fact that different modes make some meanings more easily expressible and others less so is one reason people strategically combine different modes when communicating. By doing so, the constraints of one mode can be balanced out by the affordances of another. While some things may not be easily expressed with words alone, they may be conveyed through a well-timed facial expression or a carefully placed image.
Kress and van Leeuwen (2006) highlight two key distinctions in image composition: -Left vs. Right Side : The left side of an image is typically associated with "given" information (familiar or known), while the right side contains "new" information (something that is being introduced or emphasized). This parallels how information is structured in language, where "given" tends to appear at the start of clauses and "new" towards the end. However, this may vary for people accustomed to reading from right to left or top to bottom. -Upper vs. Lower Part : The upper part of the image often conveys "ideal", generalized, or abstract ideas, while the lower part is used for "real", specific, and concrete information. For example, in advertisements, the top may depict the aspirational benefits of a product, while the bottom provides practical details like where to purchase it.
In face-to-face interactions, multiple modes —such as gaze, gestures, posture, spoken language, and written texts— combine together to create meaning. These modes serve three primary functions : ideational (conveying content, such as using gaze to direct attention to an object), interpersonal (establishing relationships, as when gaze builds a connection between participants) and textual (structuring communication, like gaze aiding turn-taking in conversations).
Analyzing multimodal interactions is challenging due to the abundance of modes and their varying roles. Some, like speech and gaze, work sequentially , while others, like gestures and tone, operate globally , influencing the overall context. The aim of multimodal interaction analysis is to uncover how people use these modes collaboratively to shape social practices, relationships, and identities.
CHAPTER 10- CORPUS-ASSISTED DISCOURSE ANALYSIS Discourse analysis studies how texts or conversations are structured , how participants are portrayed , and how language is used to perform social actions. Corpus-assisted discourse analysis stands out because it enables the analysis of large datasets , allowing systematic comparisons. A corpus is a collection of digital texts that can be searched using computer tools. These tools help linguists identify patterns in grammar, vocabulary, and text types , offering insights into differences across language varieties and registers.
Corpus analysis provides new perspectives by revealing patterns missed in traditional methods. It helps generalize theories across large datasets and detects broad ideological "Discourses," such as those promoting specific ideologies. For instance, Baker and McEnery’s study on refugees uncovered language patterns highlighting public perceptions.
However, corpora decontextualize texts , making it harder to analyze indirect meanings or consider the social contexts of communication. Words and phrases often rely on context for meaning , which limits purely computational approaches.
While corpus-assisted analysis is valuable , it works best when combined with other methods. It supports various theories , such as genre or conversation analysis, but is less effective for approaches emphasizing social context, like ethnography. Importantly, no tool is entirely neutral ; all methods have strengths and constraints that shape the results they produce.
Corpus-assisted discourse analysis (CADA) is a powerful method for examining patterns in language use across large datasets. Here's a breakdown of the key steps involved:
- Building the Corpus : First, you collect a representative sample of texts related to the language you're studying. The corpus should be large enough to provide meaningful insights.
