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grammatica e lessico inglese c1, Appunti di Lingua Inglese

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ENGLISH GRAMMAR C1
UNIT 1
What Is an Adverb?
Adverbs are confusing to both native and native speakers of English alike. One reason is that there are
different types of adverbs, another is that they perform different roles, and a third reason is that they
can be inserted into different places of a sentence (the beginning, the middle, or even the end).
Many of us know adverbs as words that modify verbs. They often end in 'ly' and answer questions as
'how', 'when', 'where', 'why', 'to what extent', 'how often'. Adverbs also modify adjectives (eg. a very cold
day--how cold was it? very cold. The word 'very' modifies the adjective 'cold'. Adverbs also modify other
adverbs.
What kinds of adverbs are there? There are at least eight different kinds of adverbs and these are
adverbs of manner, adverbs of frequency, adverbs of time and place, adverbs of relative time, adverbs
of degree, adverbs of quantity, adverbs that focus, adverbs that function as attitude markers.
Adverbs of Manner
Examples: carefully; slowly
What they do: These modifiers explain how something is done.
More examples: He opened the box quickly. He smacked her rigorously.
What sentence position: We find adverbs of manner most often at the end of a clause as follows:
After a verb: You spoke persuasively.
After an object: You described everything persuasively.
After an adverbial: You describe everything to the board persuasively.
You can change the position of the adverb for stylistic reasons that add emphasis
Before the subject: Slowly, she arose from the bed and began her day
Before a verb: She slowly and carefully, took the fragile glass object from the shelf and put it on
the table.
Between an object and an adverbial: She put the glass bowl carefully into the cupboard.
Adverbs of Frequency
Examples: always/usually/never/
What they do: These adverbs tell us how frequently we do things or how often things are done.
More examples: She never takes out the garbage. They don't always attend church.
What sentence position: Generally, adverbs of frequency go right before the main verb.
More examples: She never cleans the house. They don't always participate in discussions.
Two auxiliary verbs: Place an adverb of frequency in between two auxiliary verbs.
Example: They would often visit us when we were growing up.
To be:
They were always the strongest students in the class.
Is he often this late?
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ENGLISH GRAMMAR C

UNIT 1

What Is an Adverb?

Adverbs are confusing to both native and native speakers of English alike. One reason is that there are different types of adverbs, another is that they perform different roles, and a third reason is that they can be inserted into different places of a sentence (the beginning, the middle, or even the end). Many of us know adverbs as words that modify verbs. They often end in 'ly' and answer questions as 'how', 'when', 'where', 'why', 'to what extent', 'how often'. Adverbs also modify adjectives (eg. a very cold day--how cold was it? very cold. The word 'very' modifies the adjective 'cold'. Adverbs also modify other adverbs. What kinds of adverbs are there? There are at least eight different kinds of adverbs and these are adverbs of manner, adverbs of frequency, adverbs of time and place, adverbs of relative time, adverbs of degree, adverbs of quantity, adverbs that focus, adverbs that function as attitude markers.

Adverbs of Manner

Examples: carefully; slowly What they do: These modifiers explain how something is done. More examples: He opened the box quickly. He smacked her rigorously. What sentence position: We find adverbs of manner most often at the end of a clause as follows:

  • After a verb: You spoke persuasively.
  • After an object: You described everything persuasively.
  • After an adverbial: You describe everything to the board persuasively. You can change the position of the adverb for stylistic reasons that add emphasis
  • Before the subject: Slowly, she arose from the bed and began her day
  • Before a verb: She slowly and carefully, took the fragile glass object from the shelf and put it on the table.
  • Between an object and an adverbial: She put the glass bowl carefully into the cupboard.

Adverbs of Frequency

Examples: always/usually/never/ What they do: These adverbs tell us how frequently we do things or how often things are done. More examples: She never takes out the garbage. They don't always attend church. What sentence position: Generally, adverbs of frequency go right before the main verb. More examples: She never cleans the house. They don't always participate in discussions. Two auxiliary verbs: Place an adverb of frequency in between two auxiliary verbs. Example: They would often visit us when we were growing up. To be:

  • They were always the strongest students in the class.
  • Is he often this late?

Front and end sentence positions. For emphasis, adverbs such as sometimes, usually, often and occasionally can be placed at the end or the beginning of an independent clause.

  • I need to visit her often.
  • Sometimes he can be so infuriating

Adverbs of Relative Time

Examples: just, afterward, soon, currently, presently, recently. What they do: These adverbs give us information about when an action took place or an occurrence of an event in relation to another point in time.

  • More examples: He is currently studying in Canada. They're just leaving. I'll be home soon.
  • What sentence position: Use before the main verb or between two auxiliary verbs.
  • More examples: I just returned home. They just left. I have just been looking for this. Afterward and soon. Use these adverbs at the end of a clause. Example: We are going afterward. We'll be arriving soon. Currently , recently and presently can
  • are placed at the end of a main clause: She's trying to finish reading the book currently.
  • come between two auxiliary verbs: She has recently been arriving late to work.
  • go in front of a main verb: I'll presently be going to the store
  • are placed at the beginning of a clause (more formal written English: Presently, she stood up and left the room. Special adverbs: already, still, yet The meaning of these is determined by context. Consider: "Do you know the results?" and "Do you know the results, yet?" (The sentence indicates we are both waiting for results. The second sentence is more emphatic) Where in the sentence? Already, still and yet can go
  • immediately before the main verb: I already knew that. I still use the earlier version.
  • between the verb (to) be and the complement: They're still teenagers.
  • at the end of a clause: I know already. I am using the earlier version still. I didn't know that yet.

Adverbs of Degree

These are also known as

  • intensifiers (strengthen adverbs adjectives and adverbs): extremely, very, really
  • and down- toners (make them weaker): fairly, quite, rather Examples: We are very hungry. We ran fairly quickly.
  • What sentence position: Used before the word it qualifies. (e.g.) very old, terribly slowly. With modal verbs, place the adverb before the word you want to qualify. Consider the following:
  • You really must get some rest.
  • Un'azione ripetuta in un periodo non definito di tempo fra passato e presente. We have visited Portugal several times.
  • Un'azione che si è appena conclusa, espressa con l'avverbio just. I have just finished my work.
  • Un'azione svolta in un tempo irrilevante. He has read 'War and Peace'. (= ci interessa il risultato, cioè che abbia letto il libro.) Nota: Per dare o richiedere una precisione su quando, dove o chi ha svolto un'azione, si deve usare il simple past. Consultare la pagina su come scegliere tra il simple past e il present perfect.

AZIONE COMINCIATA NEL PASSATO CHE CONTINUA NEL PRESENTE

  • They haven't lived here for years.
  • She has worked in the bank for five years.
  • We have had the same car for ten years.
  • Have you played the piano since you were a child?

QUANDO IL TEMPO ESPRESSO NELLA FRASE NON È ANCORA TERMINATO

  • I have worked hard this week.
  • It has rained a lot this year.
  • We haven't seen her today.

AZIONE RIPETUTA IN UN MOMENTO NON PRECISATO FRA IL PASSATO E IL

PRESENTE.

  • They have seen that film six times
  • It has happened several times already.
  • She has visited them frequently.
  • We have eaten at that restaurant many times.

AZIONE APPENA TERMINATA (+JUST)

  • Have you just finished work?
  • I have just eaten.
  • We have just seen her.
  • Has he just left?

QUANDO IL TEMPO ESATTO DELL'AZIONE NON È IMPORTANTE O CONOSCIUTO

  • Someone has eaten my soup!
  • Have you seen 'Gone with the Wind'?
  • She's studied Japanese, Russian, and English.

FUNZIONI DEL PAST PERFECT

Il past perfect definisce un tempo precedente a un altro tempo nel passato. Si usa per chiarire che un evento si è verificato prima di un altro evento nel passato. Non è importante quale evento viene riportato per primo nella frase: il tempo del verbo chiarisce cosa è successo prima.

Nei seguenti esempi, l'Evento A è l'evento antecedente o quello che si è verificato per prima, mentre l'Evento B è l'evento più recente o il secondo a verificarsi:

Evento A Evento B John had gone out when I arrived in the office. Evento A Evento B I had saved my document before the computer crashed.

PAST PERFECT + JUST

Just si usa con il past perfect per riferirsi a un evento che si è verificato appena prima del momento in cui si sta parlando, ad esempio:

  • The train had just left when I arrived at the station.

FUNZIONI DEL PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

Il present perfect continuous si riferisce a un periodo non definito del passato compreso tra 'prima di adesso' e 'adesso'. La persona che parla sta pensando a qualcosa che è stato iniziato, ma che forse non è ancora terminato, in quel determinato periodo di tempo. La persona è interessata sia al processo che al risultato; il processo dell'azione potrebbe essere ancora in corso o potrebbe essersi appena completato.

AZIONI INIZIATE NEL PASSATO E CHE CONTINUANO NEL PRESENTE

She has been waiting for you all day (= e sta ancora aspettando). I've been working on this report since eight o'clock this morning (= e non l'ho ancora terminato). They have been travelling since last October (= e non sono ancora tornati a casa).

AZIONI APPENA COMPLETATE, MA QUELLO CHE INTERESSA È IL RISULTATO

She has been cooking since last night (= e il cibo sulla tavola ha un aspetto delizioso). It's been raining (= le strade sono ancora bagnate). Someone's been eating my chips (= e ne è sparita la metà).

VERBI SENZA FORMA PROGRESSIVA

I verbi che non prendono generalmente la forma progressiva si coniugano al present perfect. Per esempio:

I've wanted to visit China for years. She's known Robert since she was a child. I've hated that music since I first heard it. I've heard a lot about you recently. We've understood everything. we've heard this morning.

FUNZIONE

Il future perfect esprime un'azione completata nel futuro. Quando si usa questo tempo, ci si proietta nel futuro e si parla di un'azione che sarà stata completata in un momento futuro rispetto al momento presente. Il future perfect viene spesso usato con espressioni di tempo.

ESEMPI

  • I will have been here for six months on June 23rd.
  • By the time you read this I will have left.
  • You will have finished your report by this time next week.

Aggettivo Comparativo Superlativo good better best bad worse worst little less least much more most far further / farther furthest / farthest

  • The further we went, the darker it got. VOCABULARY: Come across: imbattersi in, essere compreso Goes on and on: fa altro che, va avanti e avanti Cut herself off: tagliare i ponti, si è tagliata fuori Running down: denigrare Bombards: bombardare Doesn’t really fit in: è diversa dagli altri Holds back: trattenere (dal dire qualcosa) Brings out the worst: fa uscire il peggio Relate: capire, raccontare Slip out: uscire di soppiatto, (of) sgattaiolare fuori Bring out: far uscire Jump at the chance: non lasciarsi scappare l’occasione Feel a rush: sentire l’adrenalina Take the plunge: fare il grande passa Give it a whirl: farci un giro, farci una prova

Marched: camminare, marciare Rushed: affrettato, percipitoso Drifting: alla deriva, fluttuante, vagante Zoomed: sfrecciare Strolling: passeggiare, passeggiata Leaped\leapt: balzare, balzo, guizzo Crept: (crept, crept) strisciare Slid:scorrere, avanzare

Even though: anche se, nonostante

On the other hand: dall’altra parte, da un altro lato Unlike: diversamente By comparison: in confronto Alternatively: oppure, altrimenti Due to: dovuto a, a causa di, per

ATTENZIONE A QUESTE FORME: As much as I was hanging around with them more and more More and more quickly The most light I’m going to try to explain\ I’ll….

UNIT 3

Typical word order

Typical word order is what we normally expect. The active voice is generally the typical word

order, where we put the subject (the topic or the theme) first. The subject is the ‘doer’ or agent of

the verb and this is usually what is already known (underlined). This is followed by new

information (in bold):

The box was wrapped in gold paper.

The rain lasted all day.

Her mother comes to visit about three times a year.

Most houses have at least one television nowadays.

Untypical word order

In a declarative clause, we expect the order to be subject – verb – object (SVO):

[S] Kelly [V] loved [O] the film.

Sometimes, in order to emphasise a particular part of the clause, we can change the typical order.

An untypical word order in a declarative clause, for example, is object – subject – verb (OSV).

For example, speaker B puts the object ( the kitchen ) first, to link with A’s question:

A:

Have you decided what colour to paint the kitchen yet?

B:

  • per esprimere un'azione abituale nel passato, traducendo con l'imperfetto indicativo o con l'imperfetto del verbo essere seguito da "solito" e dal verbo all'infinito When I was young I would play volleyball. = Quando ero giovane giocavo/ero solito giocare a pallavolo

1.The word “would” is a modal verb which is the past tense form of the verb “will” while the word “might” is also a modal verb which is the past tense form of the verb “may.” 2.Both the words “would” and “might” are used to make conditional verb forms, while the word “would” is used to indicate past repetition and a possibility, the word “might” is used to make requests and to indicate a possibility which is in conflict with the fact.

ATTENTION!! MISTAKE

-Not only were the staff

-Was going to notice\ would notice

-Should confidential documents be

-When we needed

-Something awful was going to happen

-Never before have we received

-Only then will I

-When the coach broke down

-Woodland

-Moorland covers

-Rainforest (foresta pluviale)

VOCABULARY

Make ends meet: far quadrare i conti

Destitute: bisognoso, privo di..

Live whithin your means: cavartela da solo, con i tuoi mezzi

Well off: benestante

Hardship: difficoltà. avversità, disagio

Prosperity: prosperità, benessere, ricchezza

Sparse: rado, scarso

On the bread line: sulla soglia della povertà

Disposable: monouso, disponibile

Pristine: immacolato, puro

Rocky: roccioso

Rugged: vigoroso, duro

Sheer: assoluto, completo

Wooded: boscoso

Coastline: costiera

Moorland: landa

Cliffs: scogliera

Slopes: pendenza

Slanting: in pendenza

By boat: via mare

Negotiate: negoziare

Buildings: costruzioni

Cruise: andare in crociera, crociera

Traffic jams: ingorghi stradali

In a nutshell: in poche parole

To put in another way

That is to say: sarebbe a dire

In other words

To cut a long story short

What I meant was

Idioms landscapes:

Get bogged down: impantanato

Be swamped: sommerso

An uphill struggle: strada in salita, faticaccia

In inglese la forma passiva si forma con il verbo : il verbo 'to be' + participio passato

Affermativa Negativa Interrogativa Interrogativa negativ The house was built in 1899. The house wasn't built in 1899. Was the house built in 1899? Wasn't the house built These houses were built in

These houses weren't built in

Were these houses built in 1899?

Weren't these houses 1899?

TO CLEAN, FORMA PASSIVA

FORMA PASSIVA CON L'INFINITO

La forma passiva all'infinito viene utilizzata dopo i verbi modali e i verbi che normalmente reggono l'infinito.

ESEMPI

  • You have to be tested on your English grammar.
  • John might be promoted next year.
  • She wants to be invited to the party.
  • I expect to be surprised on my birthday.
  • You may be disappointed.

FORMA PASSIVA AL GERUNDIO

La forma passiva al gerundio viene utilizzata dopo una preposizione e dopo i verbi che reggono il gerundio.

ESEMPI

  • I remember being taught to drive.
  • The children are excited about being taken to the zoo.
  • The children are excited to be taken to the zoo.
  • Most film stars hate being interviewed.
  • Most film stars hate to be interviewed.
  • Poodles like to be pampered.
  • Poodles like being pampered.

LA LOCUZIONE "TO BE BORN"

La locuzione "to be born" è una forma passiva e viene utilizzata principalmente al passato. Tuttavia, a volte è possibile usarla anche al presente o al futuro.

ESEMPI

  • (^) I was born in 1976.
  • Where were you born?
  • Around 100 babies are born in this hospital every week.
  • We don't know on exactly which day the baby will be born.

Il verbo to get e il verbo to have possono essere usati per formare frasi di forma attiva con significato passivo al posto del verbo to be. Queste costruzioni sono spesso utilizzate per descrivere quando vogliamo che qualcuno faccia qualcosa per noi o quando impieghiamo qualcuno per fare qualcosa al posto nostro. Il soggetto regge una frase attiva, ma la sua azione si limita al "far fare". È la persona sottintesa e coinvolta che effettivamente esegue l'azione espressa dal verbo principale della frase. Questa seconda persona rimane implicita nella frase a senso passivo. Siamo più interessati al risultato dell'azione che nella persona che la esegue.

ESEMPI

  • I must get my hair cut.
  • I must have my hair cut.
  • When are you going to get that window mended?
  • We're having the house painted. Questo tipo di costruzione può fare riferimento al completamento di un'azione, in particolare se viene usato un indicatore temporale.

ESEMPI

  • We'll get the work done as soon as possible.
  • I'll get those letters typed before lunchtime.
  • She said she'd have my lunch delivered by noon.
  • (^) You should have your roof repaired before next winter. Se il verbo fa riferimento a un'azione indesiderata, esso ha lo stesso significato di una frase passiva.

ESEMPI

  • Jim had his car stolen last night.
  • Jim's car was stolen.
  • They had their roof blown off in the storm.
  • Their roof was blown off in the storm.

USO DI "TO NEED" NELLE FRASI PASSIVE

E' possibile formare frasi di forma attiva con significato passivo anche utilizzando il verbo to need + gerundio. Il messaggio importante comunicato da queste frasi è la persona o la cosa che subisce l'azione e non l'esecutore dell'azione.

ESEMPI

  • The ceiling needs painting.
  • The ceiling needs to be painted.
  • My hair needs cutting.
  • My hair needs to be cut.
  • That faucet needs fixing.
  • That faucet needs to be fixed. I verbi modali al passivo inglese sono usati nello stesso modo dell’italiano. C’è una sola regola: Soggetto + can / must / should / … + infinito del verbo (senza to ) => Soggetto + can / must / should /… + **BE
  • Participio passato del verbo** Esempi :

A differenza della forma attiva, in quella passiva di solito non c'è il

complemento d'agente. Il verbo dell'azione è al participio passato, e il

complemento oggetto viene prima di esso.

Soggetto + Verbo Causativo + Complemento Oggetto + Verbo dell'Azione.

Esempi:

They had their window fixed = Si sono fatti aggiustare la finestra

Fred had his dinner made = Fred si è fatto preparare la cena

I had my hair cut = Mi sono fatto tagliare i capelli

Soggetto Causativo Oggetto Azione They had their window fixed Fred had his dinner made I had my hair cut

Esempi di Verbi Causativi

Tutti gli esempi sopra usano il verbo causativo have , ma ce ne sono altri.

Nella forma attiva, alcuni di questi verbi richiedono il to davanti al verbo

dell'azione.

Questi sono alcuni esempi dei verbi causativi più comuni:

Verbo Significato Verbo Azione Attiva / Passiva Esempi let permettere, lasciare forma base / participio passato Don't let him go. = Non farlo andare make costringere, obbligare forma base / participio passato They made us leave. = Ci fecero partire. get indurre, far sì che* forma con to / participio passato

I got Steve to fix their car.= Ho fatto riparare la loro auto a Steve.

* Nota: get ha lo stesso significato di have e ha sia la forma attiva che quella

passiva; in quest'ultima si differenziano per il verbo dell'azione: con get si

usa la forma con il to , mentre con have si usa la forma base.

Esempi:

I had my hair cut oppure I got my hair cut = Mi sono fatto tagliare i capelli.

I had Geena cut my hair oppure I got Geena to cut my hair = Mi sono fatto

tagliare i capelli da Geena.

VOCABULARY:

Subconsciously: inconsciamente

On impulse

Rational

Sponataneous

Gut instincts: d’istinto

Think it over

Weigh up: ponderare, pesare

Senseless: insensate

Sensitive: sensibile

Sensible: ragionevole

Cast you mind: vai indietro con i ricordi

Treasure: “fare tesoro”, tesoro…

Jog my memory: rinfrescare la memoria

Remind: ricordare qlcn

Remember: ricordarsi

Recall: richiama

I see whew you’re coming from: capisco il tuo punto di vista

No offence intended: senza offesa

In fact, if you don’t mind me saying so: se posso dirlo…

Ok, I take your point: capisco il tuo punto di vista

I beg to differ: mi permetto di dissentire, non sono d’accordo

With all due respect: con il dovuto rispetto

Put one’s mind to it: to decide you are going to do something and to put a lot of effort into doing

it:if you'd just put your mind to it, I'm sure you could do it.

Cross one’s mind: passare per la mente

Bear something in mind: to remember to consider something when you are thinking about or doing

something else Read someone’s mind: leggere nella mente Speak one’s mind: essere onesti ERRORI: The group’s first day The number of personal computers Get the job done on time Means old people are living longer these days

Nota che le proposizioni relative non-restrittive sono incidentali, cioè sono tra virgole, e

that non è usato in questo tipo di contesto.

Proposizioni Relative Non Incidentali

Le Proposizioni Restrittive Non Incidentali (Defining Clauses), cioè non tra virgole

forniscono informazioni essenziali sul sostantivo e non si possono omettere, altrimenti si

intaccherebbe la comprensione della frase.

Esempio:

The package that arrived this morning is on the desk. = Il pacco che è arrivato questa

mattina è sulla scrivania.

Abbiamo bisogno di questa informazione (that arrived this morning) per comprendere la

frase. Senza di essa, non sappiamo a quale pacco ci si sta riferendo.

Nota che that è spesso usato nelle proposizioni relative restrittive, che non sono

incidentali, cioè non sono separate dalle virgole e non viene usato mai come complemento

indiretto, cioè assieme alle preposizioni; in questo caso si usano who(m) per persone e

which per animali e cose

Esempio:

That's the woman to who(m) I lent my bike. = Quella è la donna a cui ho prestato la bici.

The tablet on which you are working is mine. = Il tablet su cui stai lavorando è mio.

Relativi Uso Esempi WHAT (quello che, ciò che)

Si usa come soggetto o complemento

What you think is important = Ciò che pensi è importante I know what you did = So quello che hai fatto WHERE (dove, in cui) Si usa al posto di in/at/to which con epressioni di luogo

The bakery where (at which) you bought some bread is now closed = Il forno dove hai comprato del pane ora è chiuso. WHEN (quando, in cui) Si usa al posto di in/on which con epressioni di tempo

The day when (on which) we met Alice was fantastic = Il giorno quando abbiamo incontrato Alice è stato fantastico WHY (perché, la ragione per cui)

Si usa al posto di the reason for which

I don't know why (the reason for which) she is so angry with me = Non so perché lei è così arrabbiata con me HOW (come, il modo in cui)

Si usa al posto di the way in which

Please, explain me how (the way in which) you did it = Per favore, spiegami come hai fatto WHICH (il che, la qual cosa)

Si riferisce alla frase che lo precede, separato da una virgola

I've lost my car keys, which means we have to take the bus = Ho perso le chiavi dell'auto, il che significa che dobbiamo prendere l'autobus

All of whom

Most of which

The result of which

VOCABULARY

Assault: attacco, assalto

Community: comunità

Controlled: controllato

Convicted: condannato

Psychiatric: psichiatrico

Sentence: sentenza

Solitary: isolato, solitario

Punished: punire, infliggere una pena

Sentenced: condannato

Counselling: legale, consulente, consiglio

Punishment: punizione, pena

Offender: criminale

Mandatory: obbligatorio, tassativo

Hazard: pericolo, rischio

Stands: schierarsi, collocarsi

Cautious: cauto, attento

Besides: tra l’altro, oltretutto

As well as: e inoltre, e anche, in aggiunta

In addition

Above all: sopra ogni cosa, più di qualsiasi altra cosa

Moreover: inoltre, in aggiunta..

Get away with murder: passarla liscia

Look over one’s shoulder: guardare le spalle

Catch red-handed: cogliere in fragrante

I caught the thief red handed stealing my jewels.

Up to no good: combinare qualcosa When he has that look on his face, I know he´s up to no good.

Lay down the law: dettare legge, stabilire le regole

My mom laid down the law; if I choose to smoke I can't live at home.

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