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A text is a unit of language in use, not a grammatical unit, like a clause or a sentence. A text is best regarded as asemantic unit: a unit not of form but of meaning, used to communicate something. The characteristics of a text:
- Coherence: A text must present ideas in a logically connected way
- Cohesion: This refers to the linguistic devices (e.g., conjunctions, pronouns, lexical repetition) that link sentences and ideas within the text, making it flow
Cohesion
Cohesion refers to the formal and semantic links between clauses. It explains how an item such as a pronoun, a noun, or a conjunction in one clause may refer backwards or forwards to another clause. It must be distinguished from coherence. Coherence can exist without cohesion, although this is rare. Cohesion is about explicit linguistic links in the text. Coherence is about how a text is interpreted as a meaningful whole, even without visible links. A famous example is： A: That’s the telephone. B: I’m in the bath. A: OK. There are no formal ties here, but we still understand the meaning: one person is asking the other to answer the phone, while the other explains they cannot because they are in the bath. This shows that cohesion is not a sufficient condition for coherence Halliday and Hasan (1976) define cohesion: Cohesion exists when the interpretation of one element in discourse depends on another. That element can only be understood by referring to the other. Wash and core six cooking apples. Put them into a fireproof dish.
Here, them in the second sentence refers back to six cooking apples in the first sentence. The relationship between them and six cooking apples is called a cohesive tie. A cohesive tie is when one item can only be understood by referring to another Cohesion works inside a sentence or across sentences: Within a single clause/sentence (intraclausal or intrasentential): Mary put the money in her purse. → her refers back to Mary in the same sentence. Between clauses within one sentence (interclausal): Mary took the money and put it in her purse. → it and her refer back to money and Mary. Between separate sentences (intersentential): Mary took the money. Then she put it in her purse. → she and it link back to Mary and money in the previous sentence. Halliday and Hasan classify cohesive devices into five main categories:
- Reference
- Substitution
- Ellipsis
- Conjunction
- Lexical cohesion Cohesive features Some forms of cohesion are realised through grammar —> Grammatical cohesion (Reference, Substitution, and Ellipsi) Some forms of cohesion are realised through vocabulary —> Lexical cohesion Some forms of cohesion are borderline between grammar and lexis —> Conjunction
Reference
A reference item is a word or phrase, whose identity can only be understood by looking at other parts of the text or at the surrounding situation.
creates true cohesion. The has no meaning by itself. It only makes something specific and identifiable the tree, the enemy, the cross → presupposes there is a specific tree, enemy, or cross already identifiable. The most frequent use of the is exophoric definite reference, which works in two ways:
- Referring to something specific in the situation. The water’s too cold (at a swimming pool → refers to pool water). Mind the gap! (London Underground → the gap between train and platform).
- Referring to something shared by a community or culture (called homophora). Examples: the president, the baby, the piano. It can also be generic reference: The lion is one of the four big cats… The alligator is known for its bite. Endophoric uses of “the”: Cataphoric: The title of the book, The capital of France, The man who fixed our drains. → The points forward to the modifier (book title, capital, man). This is not cohesive, because it only works inside the noun phrase. Anaphoric: This is the truly cohesive one. The refers back to something already mentioned. Last year I bought a new house. The house is very well built. Last year I bought a new house. The place is very well built. I went into the house. The rooms were very dark. Comparative reference: such, more, less, other, similar, different Here are your chicken wings. (said while serving them)/ Thanks, but please give me less During our meeting on renewable energy, Mike argued in favour of wind power because of its sustainability. John made a similar argument at the
previous meeting.
Substitution and Ellipsis
Substitution and Ellipsis are closely related because both deal with avoiding repetition in a text. They are very common in spoken routines like question– answer exchanges. Substitution replaces an item with another word or phrase. Ellipsis omits the item completely (“substitution by zero”). They usually link two neighbouring clauses, while reference can stretch across long stretches of text. With substitution, one item is replaced by another. Nominal substitution: Which book do you want? – I’ll take the red one. ( book is substituted by one.) Verbal substitution: I have coffee every morning and he does too. ( does substitutes for have coffee every morning.) Clausal substitution: A: I am so ugly. B: Okay, if you say so. ( so substitutes for the whole clause I am so ugly.) Halliday and Hasan call ellipsis “substitution by zero”. Something is left unsaid, but it is still understood. Nominal ellipsis: He potted the pink ball and then the black. (ball is omitted after black.) Verbal ellipsis: omission of subject and/or some verbal elements. John played tennis and Peter football. (played is omitted in the second clause.) Clausal ellipsis: omission of the subject and the WHOLE verb phrase A: Do you play tennis? B: No. (The full answer I don’t play tennis is omitted.)
Lexical Cohesion
Lexical cohesion refers to how words in a text are semantically related to create unity and coherence. It is not grammatical but lexical — based on vocabulary choice. Halliday and Hasan identify two main types of lexical cohesion: Reiteration (continuity of reference with a subtype) Collocation Reiteration means repeating the same idea with different lexical choices: Exact repetition: I saw a boy. The boy was crying. Synonym or near-synonym: I saw a boy. The lad was crying. Superordinate (general term): I saw a boy. The child was crying. General word (very broad, unspecific words like thing, person, stuff): I saw a boy. The kid was crying. Poor thing! These forms of reiteration create cohesion by connecting different lexical items to the same referent or idea. Collocation refers to the use of words that are typically associated with each other, even if they are not synonyms. It means “there is cohesion between any pair of lexical items that stand to each other in some recognizable lexicosemantic relation.” Hyponymy: words under the same superordinate category. apple, orange, banana, lemon → fruit chair, desk, sofa, table → furniture Antonymy: opposites. large–small, happy–sad collocation includes more other relations: Part–whole: car – wheel, tree – branch Opposites/contrast: hot – cold, buy – sell Common contexts: doctor – patient, teacher – student, sun – shine These lexical associations help readers link parts of a text together, even
when there is no direct repetition. Lexical relations often build up into chains ( Lexical chains ) across a text, not just between adjacent clauses.
General Nouns and Signalling Nouns
Halliday and Hasan describe general nouns as words that have very broad, unspecific meanings. They are bridge words, they can condense complex information into a simple noun, making it easy to connect across sentences. General nouns = vague nouns that get their meaning from context. thing, person, people, man, woman, child, creature place, area, situation, business, affair, question, fact, issue They function as referring items but do not carry much descriptive content by themselves. Their meaning depends heavily on the surrounding context. I don’t like the look of the place. That’s the thing I was worried about. Here, place and thing are only interpretable because of the context. In this way, they contribute to cohesion: they point to some entity already established or understood in the discourse. Signalling nouns = abstract nouns, they are a special type of general nouns. They can summarise one part of the text and connect it to what follows. fact, idea, problem, reason, result, issue, situation, question, point… She had worked very hard. The result was that she passed with distinction. The government has announced tax cuts. This decision has been widely criticised. Here, result and decision function as signalling nouns. They create cohesion by summarising the previous sentence
Cohesive Chains
In real texts, cohesive ties (for example, them → apples) do not exist in
Syntactic level (same structure: repeated imperatives, repeated questions) Lexical level (same or similar words repeated: Do you want to split my Tab?) Phonological level (parallel rhythm and sounds, creating a pattern). Halliday and Hasan exclude this category, which they refer to as ‘syntactic parallelism’, from their study of cohesion on the grounds that it is a purely formal device, not a meaningful relation. Nevertheless, parallelism is cohesive in so far as it is a means of relating one clause to another.
Theme and Rheme
1. Definition of Theme
Theme is the "the starting point of the message". It is the first element in a clause that sets the framework for the rest of the clause. In this sense, the theme sets the context, as the most relevant part of a clause to comprehend the subsequent message. In discourse, theme choice affects: the overall focus of a text (repeating the same theme maintains coherence) shared knowledge between writer and reader (theme usually carry given information) Understanding theme helps learners: better know text focus make writing more coherent notice differences between English and other languages. E.g., Chinese puts time/location first)
2. Types of Theme
- Unmarked Theme:
- The subject of the clause is also the theme (most common). ：：：：：：
- Example: "The sun (theme) is shining."
- Marked Theme:
- A non-subject element (adjunct, object, complement) is placed first for emphasis or to shift focus. ：：：：：：：：：：：：：：
- Often signals a change in topic, time, or place.
- Examples:
- Adjunct: "Yesterday, (theme) I went to the cinema."
- Object: "This book (theme), I found in a store."
- Complement: "Silent, (theme) the night was." When we have a sentence consisting of more than one clause, each clause can be analysed as having its own theme. I ’ve managed to buy a lot of different French cheeses, but some I can’t get hold of ：：：：：：： clauses ：：：： but ：： ：：：： theme：I (unmarked theme) ：：： clause ： some ：：：some(indirect object)：：：：：： marked theme By changing the order of main and subordinate clauses, we change the themes, and thereby change the meaning. Susan left her job because she wanted a change Because she wanted a change , Susan left her job
- Interrogative Clauses: Theme usually indicates what the speaker wants to know, placed at the beginning of the clause. Wh-questions: theme is the wh-word alone or with its nominal group
- Example: " Where are you going?" How many eggs do you need? Polar interrogatives (yes/no questions): theme included the auxiliary verb
- subject
- Example: Are you Italian?
- Imperative Clauses: Theme is the action verb that the speaker wants to be performed.
- Example: " Give me the book." Negative imperatives include the auxiliary “don’t” as part of the theme, because the auxiliary verb doesn’t carry any experiential meaning. Don’t leave me Inclusive imperatives treat “let’s” as the theme, used when you want someone to join you some action. Let’s dance Imperatives with adjuncts, adjuncts can front the clause for emphasis as a marked theme After lunch , come to see me
- Passive Clauses: Theme emphasizes the recipient, not the agent.
- Example: " Rabbits were introduced by the Normans." In active clause, the agent is typically the theme ( The Normans introduced rabbits), while in passive clause the patient (recipient) becomes the theme.
- Exclamative Clauses: Theme is the wh- element expressing emotion, typically followed by a nominal group.
- Example: " What a beautiful day it is!" How lovely to see you again!
- Elliptical Clauses: Theme is omitted but recoverable from the context. Typical used when shared knowledge allows omission of the theme.
- Example: " Tea , please." (Implied: "I would like tea.") They sang and (they omitted theme) danced all nigh Omission promotes fluency and avoids redundancy in conversation.
- Anticipatory-It Clauses: "It" acts as a placeholder subject (theme). It emphasizes something before revealing the main point. Common in formal writing to attribute opinions.
- Example: " It is important to note the deadline."
- Existential Clauses: introduces new information: the existence of something using “there” as grammatical subject and theme.
- Example: " There is a problem."
- Multiple themes: clauses containing more than one thematic elements Textual themes: connectors like “finally”, “but” that link clauses Moreover, your idea would be impractical Finally, they finished their drinks Interpersonal themes: express attitude (modal adjuncts “personally”, “perhaps”), or address the listener (“darling”) Perhaps he will pay you a visit Darling, I’m waiting for you Experiential themes: the subject (always present) In some cases, there may be both an textual and a interpersonal theme, in addition to the experiential theme which is obligatory present. The order of
- Clause B: The gun was loaded.
- Constant theme → Theme: The same theme is repeated across clauses.
- Example:
- Clause A: I am a teacher.
- Clause B: I live in London.
- Rheme Splits into Multiple Themes: Elements in the rheme become themes of subsequent clauses.
- Example:
- "There are two methods: free feeding and scheduled feeding."
- Free feeding (theme) is when...
- Scheduled feeding (theme) gives... Thematic progression often uses:
- Pronouns (e.g., John → he )
- Synonyms (e.g., "war" → "conflict")
- Hyponyms (e.g., "fruit" → "bananas")
- Meronyms (e.g., "car" → "bumper")
Intertextuality
Definition of Intertextuality
Intertextuality: the web of relationships between texts, it refers to the explicit and implicit relationships a text has with prior, contemporary, or future texts (Bazerman). Almost every word we use has been heard or seen before. Our creatively
come from existing language (the sea of words) and how we put these words together. Everything we say and write refers to something exist. Intertextuality is the relationship each text has with the surrounding “sea of texts.” Intertextual analysis asks: How does a text use previous words and ideas? How does it position itself in relation to them?
- Key Theorists:
- Julia Kristeva (coined the term) – Texts are mosaics of citations.
- Roland Barthes – A text is a "tissue of quotations."
- Charles Bazerman – We create texts from a "sea of language" shaped by other texts. Example:
- The Lion King (Disney) draws from Hamlet (Shakespeare).
- Ulysses (Joyce) reimagines The Odyssey (Homer). Texts evoke (call up) prior texts to frame their own context, making readers familiar with their discussion. to claim authority, through strategic citations of authoritative sources to communicate efficiently, by borrowing shared language
6 Levels of Intertextuality
To be more clear how texts borrow from other text, there are 6 Levels of Intertextuality
- Direct Quotation: copying the exact words from another text, marked by quotation
- Function: Adds precision and authority (e.g., citing a study in a news report), by showing relationship with an external source. Example: A news article quotes a scientist: "Climate change is irreversible," said Dr. Lee. Use of reporting clause: she said…
7 Forms of intertextuality
When doing intertextual analysis, the first step is always to know why you are doing it and what questions you want to answer. Possible goals include: Identifying which types of texts an author relies on. Seeing how an author positions themselves in relation to others. Understanding how a researcher builds on prior work. Analyzing how students are integrating knowledge into their writing. The task is to find where the text shows signs of intertextuality.
- Adaption: reinterpretation of a exist text in a new form, keeping its core ideas. Prevalent in films, theatres and literatures, allowing the audience to experience classic stories. (e.g., Romeo + Juliet in a modern setting).
- Pastiche: imitation of a style or genre, often to honour or celebrate the original text rather than for comedic effect (Parody)
- Allusion: indirect reference to another text, requiring audience’s cultural knowledge to make the connection (e.g., The "green light" in ： The Great Gatsby： symbolizes the American Dream).
- Parody: an exaggerated imitation for critique. It also requires familiarity with the original
- Satire: critique social issue through irony or exaggeration (e.g., Animal Farm critiques Stalinism).
- Plagiarism: copying other’s work without permission or attribution (unethical)
- Translation: cinvert8ng texts across languages and cultures
How to Analyze Intertextuality
- Identify explicit references: Look for quotes and citations,
Ask: does this reference support, contrast or add context to the main text? Example: An academic paper citing Freud’s theories to justify its argument.
- Identify implicit connections: recognize allusions or cultural references, they are often indirect and requiring readers background knowledge
- Analyze the type of intertextuality Is it parody, adaptation, or satire? Does it support, critique, or entertain?
- Determine Purpose and consider audience think about writer’s intend and audience expectations, indentify the purpose behind the intertextuality Ask: is the writer with mocking, or educating the audience?
- Examine how intertextuality shapes meaning: references add layers of meaning (irony, depth) Ask: how does the reference change meaning in the new text?
- Investigate historical context: the meaning of a reference may change over time, consider how the source was understood when it was created and how it is perceived today
- Identify patterns: look for repeated references across the text, they reveal central themes
- Consider reader interpretation: not all readers get the references (multiple interpretations) How does it shape the reader’s understanding?
