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International cooperation for development Development Cooperation What is development cooperation? Evolution of development assistance doctrine Aid architecture: Actors (donors, recipients …), modalities, Aid flows: trends, challenges, Methodological issues on Aid flows: OECD-DAC and other sources of information Aid management: Organizational aspects of international development assistance, Choosing between form, modalities and channels of aid delivery, The problem of evaluation Research (on, in and for DC; i.e. geography and development cooperation) What is development cooperation? A Foucauldian’ perspective: ‘politics is concerned with power’, ‘politics is everywhere’, between formal and informal. Between techniques and politics Reasons for assistance to development: Altruistic Economic Political Military Humanitarian “It is used to advance wide-ranging objectives such as minimizing risks for loan repayment, efficiency, equity of the public sector, overcoming infrastructure deficiencies, promoting growth, facilitating poverty alleviation and good governance, combating terrorism, support for a specific ideology, influence peddling, and economic and political imperialism”. Institutional definition of Bonaglia, De Luca (2006): The development cooperation policy (DCP) is the set of policies implemented by government or by a multilateral institution, which aims at creating the necessary conditions for economic and social long-lasting and sustainable development in another country. The implementation of these policies can be realized by governmental organizations, national or international, or non-governmental organizations.
From international to global development
1990s: int dev: Associated with actions related to the development of poor countries/foreign aid
INTERVENTIONS. Focuses on inequalities between developing and developed countries 2015: global dev: Interconnectedness of globalized capitalism; Interconnected nature of global public goods, including health, environment, and global financial stability; Global challenge of sustainable development, especially climate crisis; Accelerated blurring of the North–South boundaries Inequalities among and within countries
In 2000 was created the idea of the United Nations Millennium Declaration, with the following 8 development goals: In 2015 the agenda changed, and we passed from 8 to 17 goals and from 1 environmental sustainability to many. Generally, they are more specific. https://sdgs.un.org/goals Where they come from? The work started for the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development. All the UN agencies, countries were involved in 5 fundamental principles of sustainable development and 169 targets. They are integrated and indivisible and balance the 3 dimensions of sustainable development: the economic, social and environmental. This 5 fundamental of SDGs are: Planet → Protect degradation through sustainable consumption, production, natural resource management, actions on climate change. Partnership→ Revitalised global partnership, participation of all countries, stakeholders and people Peace→ Foster peaceful, just and inclusive societies, free from fear and violence Prosperity→ Enjoy prosperous and fulfilling lives, economic, social and technological harmonic progress People→ End poverty and hunger in all their forms and dimensions, ensure all human beings can fufil their potential in dignity, equality and healthy environment. Goal-target-indicator for measurable states against which we assess progress, what we want to achieve and means of implementation. “Our Common Future”: The idea of it was created between 1983 and 1987, and the first thinking was about growth and only then about environment. The concept of sustainable development has been introduced in 1987 Italian context: Italy introduced a law about global sustainable growth in 2014 and became effective in
Law 49 of 26 February 1987 New provisions governing Italian cooperation with developing countries. Art 1: Art. 1 (Purpose and scope) •1. Development cooperation is an integralpart of Italy's foreign policy and pursues the objectives of solidarity among peoples and the full application of the fundamental human rights. It is inspired by the
security manoeuvres or support to developing countries’ military capacity may require plenty of international cooperation but would not be classified development cooperation. In order to help classify activities by whether they are developmental or not –there will always be grey areas – we should rely on globally agreed goals, namely the internationally agreed development goals, such as the Millennium Development Goals/SDGs, and other international or regional development agreements.
- Is not driven by profit: This is the critical added value of development cooperation, in that it means doing something that is not-for-profit, or that accepts a lower profit than the market would offer. It would not happen if profit incentives alone were followed, or at least not in the same way. It is about correcting market failures and rules that impede or undermine developmental objectives. That said, development cooperation can also play a role in incentivising genuine for-profit activities with positive developmental impacts
- Discriminates in favour of developing countries: Only if an action aims deliberately to create new opportunities for developing countries, in a discriminatory way, and taking into account the structural impediments that limit poor countries’ development, can it be considered development cooperation. This criterion will be increasingly important when it comes to implementing the post-2015 development agenda, as it distinguishes development cooperation from international action on sustainable development more generally.
- Is based on cooperative relationships that seek to enhance developing country ownership: Development cooperation should be based on cooperative and non-hierarchical relationships between international partners that seek to complement resources and capacities in favour of development purposes. These relationships should be respectful of countries’ sovereignty in defining and steering national development strategies. In fact, development cooperation should seek to widen developing countries’ room for manoeuvre, limiting the restrictions and enhancing the opportunities that condition their development process Purposes of DC: Guaranteeing universal basic standards of social protection Promoting convergence among countries’ standards of living Supporting efforts of developing countries to actively participate in the provision of international public goods Characteristics: Explicitly intends to support national or international development priorities Not driven by profit Discriminates in favour of developing countries Based on cooperative relationships that seek to enhance developing country ownership Types: Financial (and in-kind) transfer: Aid as the easiest activity to measure. This approach has been crithicized since it can be poor value for money and undermine domestic markets in recipients countries Capacity support: Many countries are now emerging from extreme poverty but they still need the support of development cooperation, using Organisational and human resources, Technology cooperation, Sharing policy experience Policy change
International public finance (IPF) This term is used to cover all types of publicly sourced money transferred internationally but does not define its purpose (see Glennie and Hurley 2014). Thus it would not comply with the first criteria of the DC definition presented here.
1. Types of cooperation by:
Transferred resources (finance, technology, material…) [see previous lecture] Geographical destination (donor countries -recipient countries North-South, trilateral, South South …) Actors and channels (governments, IOs, NGOs, decentralized or local authorities …) Conditions (conditionality in DC jargon: yes/no; access to resources, democracy…;input/output) Intervention scenarios (development, emergency, reconstruction, humanitarian aid….) Intervention sectors [rural/urban; production (industry, agriculture…) infrastructure, social (education, health…) environment…] Intervention levels & scales (policies, programmes, projects…; international, macro-regional, national, regional, local… )
2. Geographic destination
3. Actors and channels
Governmental –non governmental Bilateral –Multilateral –Multi-Bilateral –Decentralized… Types of actors by: o scale of competence (local, regional, national, international) o scale of action (everyone acts at an international scale but…) o nature: public (ODA), private (NGOs, banks, companies, corporate foundations, family foundations, private individuals, dev funds)
4. Conditions
Conditions are imposed as part of lending or grant assistance unilaterally or by mutual agreement of the donor and the recipient. These conditions form contractual terms of such assistance which bind the recipient to expected actions or results as a quid pro quo for receiving such financial assistance. They may impose formal binding requirements or simply indicate informal non-binding expectations. The conditions imposed may be ex ante (pre-requisites), ex post or both. Why do donors require conditions? They want to be sure loans will be repaid They want to stress recipient ownership of assisted program They want to ensure integrity of donor-assisted operations They want to influence recipient priorities or as an inducement/incentive for reform
They want to send political signals! At the same time conditions can be tricky, because can hide paternalism: embody an implicit judgement that the recipient lacks the knowledge to pursue economic policies that serve its best interest and donor agencies have better knowledge as to what would work best. Washington consensus is an example.
- Scenarios
6. Intervention sectors
(rural-urban production-industry, agriculture) infrastructure, social (education, health..) environment.. Climate change/natural resources management Conflict management Democracy, rights and governance Basic education Economic development Global health Water, sanitation and hygiene
7. Intervention levels & scale
Policy→ set of rules established to solve a collective problem Plan→ A long term road map to achieve broad goals Program→ A policy delivery tool that defines timing, budget, actors etc.
example, official subsidies granted to private companies aimed at supporting their commercial activities. Besides official aid, ODA, there are private ones like from NGOs, banks, companies, corporate foundations, family foundations, private individuals, development funds The 32 official members of DAC are called “class of donors” and the candidate countries have to follow some criteria, such as:
- The existence of appropriate strategies, policies and institutional frameworks that ensure capacity to deliver development cooperation program.
- An accepted measure of effort
- a system of performance monitoring and evaluation Who are the recipient for the OECD? The DAC list of ODA recipients is designed for statistical purposes, since it helps to measure and classify aid and other resource flow originating in donor countries. Is not designed as a guidance for aid or other referential treatment. Here are included all low- and middle-income countries, except for those that are member of G8 OR EU. Also, the list includes the Least Developed Countries. TOSSD (Total Official Support for Sustainable Development) promote transparency about the full array of officially support of the 2030 agenda, including resources provided through South-South cooperation, triangular cooperation, multilateral institutions and emerging and traditional donors. TOSSD will complement ODA by increasing transparency and monitoring important new trends that are shaping the development finance landscape.
NGO’S in the world
What is an NGO? An NGO is an articulated and complex world: From the first NGO 150 years ago (birth of the International Red Cross in Switzerland) to the first Italian NGO: 1933 birth of the Italian Missionary Medical Union (Verona) •Different types and characteristics "The diversity of NGOs strains any simple definition. They include many groups and institutions that are entirely or largely independent from government and that have primarily humanitarian or cooperative rather than commercial objectives… They don’t receive money from the government, sometimes they are also completely independent from it. According to the World Bank: They are private agencies in industrial countries that support international development; indigenous groups organized regionally or nationally; and member-groups in villages. NGOs include charitable and religious associations that mobilize private funds for development, distribute food and family planning services and promote community organization. They also include independent cooperatives, community associations, water-user societies, women's groups and pastoral associations. Citizen Groups that raise awareness and influence policy are also NGOs.
In the Italian legal system, non-governmental organizations are defined as: Private, non-profit associations, which promote and carry out international cooperation actions aimed at the development of poor countries. They operate on the basis of the principles of solidarity between peoples, for the promotion and respect for the fundamental rights of humanity. In Italy the situation is complex, since the presence of the third sectors that should gather all the sectors, including the NGOs. It’s important the legal definition for receiving money from donor countries.
- NGOs have different histories depending on where they developed! (i.e. liberation theology/ forms of community organizing/peasant movements/ engaged pedagogy/ reformist middle classes/rotating credit groups….)
- Broad definition that includes also transnational civil society organizations…(i.e. panafrican organisations…)
Evolution of INGOs geography:
- Development problems must be tackled in the North and in the South;
- Development must be thought and planned from different contexts;
- Expertise can be found everywhere (key role of media and technology) WHAT DO NGOS DO? Increase of NGOs from 2004 (less than 3% in 2004), nowadays more than 30% Types of activities: Operational→ Small-scale change directly through projects Campaigning/Advocacy→ Large-scale change indirectly influence on the political system Research→ Increase knowledge and understanding
From emergency to development: different types of interventions: First emergency, emergency, post-emergency; Reconstruction, reconstruction plus; Assistance, mutual assistance; Aid for development, self-development, inter-development. Different levels of beneficiaries’ involvement: passive, active, mutual Short term/long term interventions: few months, several years How are NGO’s organized?
People work to improve and reduce the gap with others. Important to understand how to reduce this gap thanks to political strategies. Scheme of the possible steps, starting schools or other stuff. Aim to put together all the structures of the governance to help the population. Key points; Different approaches: from top down to bottom up (above) Different actors mobilized, at different scales in different ways and relationship Each choice in development cooperation is always political since it affect the distribution of power People work to improve and reduce the gap with others. Important to understand how to reduce this gap Scheme of the possible steps, starting from the population. Create an association that helps to create schools or other stuff. Aim to put together all the structures of the governance to help the population. Different approaches: from top down to bottom up (above) mobilized, at different scales in different ways and relationship Each choice in development cooperation is always political since it affect the distribution of power People work to improve and reduce the gap with others. Important to understand how to reduce this gap from the population. Create an association that helps to create schools or other stuff. Aim to put together all the structures of the governance to help the population. mobilized, at different scales in different ways and relationship Each choice in development cooperation is always political since it affect the distribution of power
The steps to create more sustainable development action: GEOGRAPHY AND DEVELOPMEN Geography of cooperation Geographical analysis of actors, rationale and fluxes of cooperation like spatial approach, scales of actions, networks, place, and territoriality. Geography for cooperation Geographical knowledge of places, before the selection and analysis of the territorial context of intervention by development cooperation. Geography in cooperation Applied and operative goals, incorporated in the development cooper more explicit and reflexive. Development cooperation and space (territory): Evolution in DC approaches and space: No-space/territory approach (es. hunger; water) Functionalistic approaches (es. importance of space, exploited) Territory as a passive support or a scenario Space in a metaphoric sense (space of interaction of social actors) Territory as active support: auto Questions that a geography should aim to answer: Where does a phenomenon happen? Why there? What kind of phenomena happen in a specific place? Why there? What is geography about? Different definitions:
- science of human-environment relations
- science of places
- science of spatial differentiation
- science of spatial organization The steps to create more sustainable development action: GEOGRAPHY AND DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION Geography of cooperation Geographical analysis of actors, rationale and fluxes of cooperation like spatial approach, scales of actions, networks, place, and territoriality. Geography for cooperation Geographical knowledge of places, processes, and actors who act in space. A study that comes before the selection and analysis of the territorial context of intervention by development Geography in cooperation Applied and operative goals, incorporated in the development cooperation activities. Knowledge is Development cooperation and space (territory): Evolution in DC approaches and space: space/territory approach (es. hunger; water) Functionalistic approaches (es. importance of space, territory, territorial resources to be Territory as a passive support or a scenario Space in a metaphoric sense (space of interaction of social actors) Territory as active support: auto-organization, territorial sustainability a geography should aim to answer: Where does a phenomenon happen? Why there? What kind of phenomena happen in a specific environment relations ience of spatial differentiation Geographical analysis of actors, rationale and fluxes of cooperation like spatial approach, scales of processes, and actors who act in space. A study that comes before the selection and analysis of the territorial context of intervention by development ation activities. Knowledge is territory, territorial resources to be organization, territorial sustainability Where does a phenomenon happen? Why there? What kind of phenomena happen in a specific
Natural or cultural environment: nowadays the role of humans is central, transformative action of humans. Unitarisation of the concept of environment: there are no longer any natural or non- anthropogenic environments. Malcevschi Model (1991) He was the first that introduced the environmental impact assessment. The idea was to do a preliminary assessment, with possible positive or negative impacts before implementing some changes. In 1985 it was introduced in Europe. Three levels of analysis: the constituent elements of the environmental system (air, water, artefacts, human population, other organisms, physical substrates); the relationships between these elements and the existence or non-existence of a centre in the system of relationships; the existence or otherwise of perceptual filters: objective or subjective environment (point of view)
- He introduced first the concept of habitat. Concepts are referred to humans, so in this case habitat is for humans. Habitat: central position of a certain species, including humans, within the environmental context in which it lives and reproduces Technical-scientific terms. Habitat provides knowledge of presence of animal and plant species in a given area. Habitat is not immutable over time.
- Ecosystem: set of living organisms and abiotic factors present in a given environment and the relationships that bind these elements together. All the elements are on the same level, humans are not the centre: a network of relationships that does not presuppose a centre, placing all the elements on the same level and focusing attention on the flows of matter and energy that link the various components. Ecosystem as a “complex unit with an organising character”, with their own organisation. Ecosystems can be studied and protected at different levels
- Territory: there is a given subject centre of the system of relations, this centre governs and represents the entire society. Territoriality: delimitation and control of physical space
So the concept of territory is related to control and government, definition is similar to the ones used in other social sciences. Territory conceived objectively, whereas the social sciences see it as a social construction, and therefore culturally contextualised
- Nature: it doesn’t exist in objective terms. Nature is the way in which the world outside human beings is perceived by a cultural subject. It has its own history and it’s located in a given time and culture. So nature is a social construction. The idea of nature has changed during times and it was formed in different historical moments. Also the idea of nature of European societies is different from the ones of non-western cultures
- Landscape: way in which a given environment is perceived by a given cultural subject. Cultural construction to be located in space and time. The focus of reflection of various disciplines (geography, landscape ecology, urbanism, semiology to name but a few), of environmental and landscape planning policies, but also of artistic expressions (literature, painting, photography and other visual techniques). Eu Landscape Convention 2000: “part of the land, as perceived by local people or visitors, which evolves through time as a result of being acted upon by natural forces and human beings”
- Experienced environment: ways in which individuals perceive the external environment, individual point of view. Each environment has a different meaning in relation to our experience, even within shared (landscape) and perhaps stereotyped representations, such as idyllic representations of the countryside or mountains. Consideration of the lived environment can also be very relevant in various policies and decision-making processes (e.g. location of infrastructure, architectural design and public spaces, etc.).
From environment to territory
