We distinguish between general orientations and culturally formed orientations. TAXONOMY OF ORIENTATION Some may feel that they can control the environment, as in “Just Do It”, others believe that the environment control them. The United States is a prime example of a control orientation Southern Europe is closer to constraint orientation. A third perception of the environment is Native-American and Eastern orientation that operate in harmony with real or perceived environment. MONOCHRONJIC/ POLYCHRONIC TIME Culture  perceive the time as the frame. The focus is on the task rather than the relationship; and schedules are important and adhere to POLYCHRONIC OR MULTIFOCUS CULTURES  place greater emphasis on the relationship and multi-tasking. FLUID- FIXED TIME Fixed time cultures perceive time technically. Fluid time defines punctuality with more flexibility. PAST/PRESENT/FUTURE Past-oriented cultures emphasize tradition. This is true of Italy Present-oriented cultures, such as America, emphasize the here and now. Long-term planning tend to be in terms of five to ten years at maximum. Future oriented societies can plan ahead of the next generation. Japanese business plans take account of the past and can plan for the next hundred years SPACE The Japanese have an orientation toward public space and distance with openplan offices, but very little physical contact. In comparison, an American or European house or office will tend towards the private, and higher levels of proximity are tolerated. DIFFUSE/ SPECIFIC Space can also be perceived as psychological. The degree to which individuals let others into their life tends to change with culture. New acquaintances become intimate friends over a relatively short period of time. However this relationship is specific to a particular sector. A diffuse life space orientation guarded approach to acquaintances. However once a relationship has been formed entry, including entitlements and obligations is expected to all areas of private space. The first example is Germany. POWER

In all societies there is power. Italy is a relatively high power distance country, while Northern Europe, Britain and the States tend to emphasize low power distance. South America, Asia and S. Europe tend to respect high power distance. Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner distinguish between cultures that tend to accord status according to “who” someone is and those oriented towards awarding status to proven results regardless of background. INDIVIDUALISM Japan is the most well-known “we”, collective, oriented culture. America lead the “I” “do your own thing”. PARTICULARISM Particularist cultures, such as those on the Russian subcontinent, Asia, Central and South America, and Souther Europe plus France and Italy, do not reduce situations to simplistic rules. These cultures emphasize difference, uniqueness and exceptions. COMPETITIVNESS Competitive cultures privilege the more masculine character. There are winners and losers and “PEOPLE LIVE TO WORK” COOPERATIVE CULTURES work together as interdependent teams “WORK TO LIVE” and place an higher value on the quality of life. STRUCTURE Japan, Greece, Italy and Germany have a strong orientation towards order, and tend to avoid ambiguity or change in all things. The Anglo-American countries have a relatively high toleration for uncertainty and change.. Singapore has the highest toleration. DEDUCTIVE/INDUCTIVE Deductive  focus on theories, logic and principles. (France and Germany) Inductive more pragmatic and specific, starting from empirical observation. (United States and Britain). LINEAR/SYSTEMIC Linear  will dissect problems into logical and precise sequences, look for detail, precision and minute cause and effect. Systemic  is holistic and look at the full picture. Italy tends towards the systemic, while Japan is a clear example of the most systemically oriented culture. HIGH AND LOW CONTEXT In terms of communication, “context”, according to Hall, it’s “the amount of information the other person can be expected to possess on a given subject” while the text is “ transmitted information”. Both Halliday and Hall  agree that communication entails both text and context. Hallyday says that the context of situation is the “total environment in which a text unfolds”.