Scarica LETTERATURA INGLESE 1 - concorso ter e più Dispense in PDF di Inglese solo su Docsity! 1 From the ORIGINS to the MIDDLE AGES HISTORICAL CONTEXT The history of England started with different invasions by: 1. 700 B.C - 409 A.D ➡ IBERIANS, CELTS and ROMANS - The Iberians spread slowly from the south. The most famous structure is the megalith of Stonehenge in the South West of England; - The Celts began to arrive from north-west Germany. They were farmers, hunters, fishermen. They worked iron and worshipped natural elements. Their priests were the Druids, who played a remarkable role in religion/medicine/justice/education; - The Romans brought their culture and language with them, built towns and roads 2. 5th century ➡ ANGLO-SAXONS Following the Roman withdrawal, two Germanic tribes, the Angles and the Saxons, migrated from continental Europe to Britain, combined together and make up the Anglo- Saxon society (displacing the Celtic and Romano-British populations). They came by sea and gave Britain its new name - England, the land of Angles. HOW WAS THE SOCIETY ORGANISED? The Anglo-Saxon were mostly farmers and fishermen. - the EORLS, a kind of aristocracy - the THEGNS, high-ranking warriors, who devoted their life to hunting - The peasants - The slaves Laws were not created, law was custom (=what had been done in the past) They established various kingdoms, such as Wessex, Mercia, and Northumbria, and gradually converted to Christianity. Monasteries became important cultural centres. 9th century ➡ VIKINGS Viking (called ‘Danes’ by the English) were sea people coming from Norway, Sweden and Denmark. They started their incursions into England, which intensified in the late 9th century, leading to the establishment of the Danelaw, a region in England under Viking control. 1066 - 1485 A.D ➡ THE NORMANS They were the last invaders of the British Isles. On Christmas Day 1066, William I the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, invaded England and defeated King Harold II (the last Anglo-Saxon king) at the Battle of Hastings. This event marked the end of the Anglo- Saxon rule and the beginning of Norman rule in England. 2 The Norman Conquest brought about significant changes in English society, including the introduction of feudalism, Norman French as the language of the court, and the construction of castles and cathedrals. Twenty years after the conquest, William sent his men throughout England in order to make a complete survey of the economic life of the country ➡ this survey was written down in The Domesday Book, commissioned to assess taxation. Overall, the transition from the Anglo-Saxon period to the Norman Conquest reshaped England's political, cultural, and social landscape, laying the foundation for the development of medieval England under Norman rule. THE PLANTAGENET DYNASTY Henry II, the first Plantagenet king of England and France, reigned from 1154 to 1189, focusing on establishing order and stability. To centralize power and avoid civil wars, he introduced 'scutage,' a tax allowing knights to pay instead of military service. Traveling judges implemented 'Common Law,' creating a unique legal system based on custom and precedent, replacing trial by ordeal with trial by jury. When Henry dies, his elder son became Richard I, known as Richard the Lionheart. He spent very little time in his own kingdom. Since he set out almost at once on the Third Crusade. ⬇ The Crusades were a series of religious wars fought between the 11th and 13th centuries. The goal was to reclaim the Holy Land (Jerusalem) from Muslim control. England was involved in the Crusades through participation in various crusades, such as the Third Crusade led by King Richard the Lionheart. England's involvement in the Crusades was driven by religious fervor, political alliances, and the desire to regain control of important Christian sites in the Holy Land. SOCIAL CHANGES In the 14th century, Europe experienced profound social changes. One of the most significant events that had a lasting impact on social structures was the Black Death, a pandemic that swept across the continent and caused immense devastation. The Black Death, thought to be bubonic plague, led to a massive decline in the population, with estimates suggesting that up to one-third of Europe's population perished. This demographic catastrophe had far-reaching consequences for social and economic dynamics. The labor shortage resulting from the Black Death caused a shift in power relations between the ruling elite and the laboring classes. With fewer workers available, laborers found themselves in higher demand, leading to increased wages and greater bargaining power. Serfs, who were bound to the land and subjected to the control of feudal lords, began to assert their rights and demand better working conditions. Many serfs seized the opportunity to leave their feudal obligations behind and seek better opportunities in burgeoning urban centers. 5 BEOWULF Written in Old English, Beowulf is the oldest surviving epic poem in the English language. It deals with the recollection of a glorious past in the history of a nation and the brave deeds of heroes. Originally untitled, in the 19th century the poem began to be called by the name of its Scandinavian hero, whose adventures are its primary focus. Although historical elements run through the poem, both the hero and the story are fiction. Beowulf was probably composed as an elegy for a king who died in the 7th century, and developed through many retellings before it was written down. It describes a Germanic warrior society, in which the relationship between the leader, or king, and his thanes is founded on provision and service. The thanes defend the interests of the king in return for material provisions: weapons, armor, gold, silver, food, and drinks. This society is strongly defined in terms of kinship; it is a world ruled by fate and destiny. Plot A terrible monster, Grendel, frightens the Danes every night, killing them and defeating their efforts to fight back. Grendel's menace continues for twelve years, till Beowulf, a young warrior decides to sail to Denmark with a small company of men, determined to defeat Grendel. Beowulf sleeps in the hall and, when Grendel makes his nightly raids, he fights against the monster and kills him. But another threat is approaching. Grendel's mother, who lives in a desolate lake, comes to seeking revenge for her son. She murders Aeschere, one of Hrothgar's best friends and advisers. To avenge Aeschere's death, Beowulf travels to the murky lake, where he dives into the water and succeeds in killing Grendel's mother with a sword forged for a giant; then, finding Grendel's corpse, decapitates it and brings the head as a prize to Hrothgar. Beowulf sails back to Geatland and becomes King of the Geats. He rules wisely for 50 years, bringing prosperity to his country. When Beowulf is an old man, however, a thief disturbs a barrow where a great dragon lies guarding its treasure. Enraged, the dragon emerges from the barrow and begins to kill the Geats. Beowulf fights the fire dragon and, with the aid of Wiglaf, he kills the monster, but he is mortally wounded. According to Beowulf's wishes, his warriors burn his body on a huge funeral pyre and then bury him in a barrow overlooking the sea. Themes • Importance of the warrior code: • loyalty to the king who is generous, hospitable and protected by his warriors, ‘thanes’; • the need to take revenge; • physical strength and courage; • the search for glory in this life. Main features • it is an alliterative poem • it is poor in similes but rich in kennings (metaphorical circumlocutions used) • its tone is solemn 6 Beowulf and Grendel’s fight: (translation by Seamus Heaney) RED Grendel Grendel’s action Beowulf Beowulf’s action The warriors The battle Beowulf’s greatest deeds Grendel’s wounds Description of Beowulf’s character Alliteration Methonimy The passage from Beowulf stands out for its epic style and the use of rich and descriptive language. The author employs powerful terms and metaphors to create a tense and grandiose atmosphere during the battle between Beowulf and Grendel. The use of alliterations and rhythmic cadence gives the text a poetic and impactful tone, characteristic of Anglo-Saxon epic literature. The detailed description of the characters' actions and emotions makes the narrative engaging and dramatic, highlighting the struggle between good and evil in a masterful way. 7 THE CANTERBURY TALES It is the greatest example of narrative poem in medieval literature written by Geoffrey Chaucer, remembered as the Father of English Poetry. It offers a realistic portrait of Medieval Society and its individuals which are at the same time literary types. Plot The plot of the Canterbury Tales is quite simple. It is spring and 30 people (the author included) are going on pilgrimage, they are traveling to Canterbury (in Kent) to shrine of Thomas Becket. The journey takes several days. They gather at the Tabard Inn in London. The host of this inn suggests that every pilgrim should tell two stories while they were going to Canterbury and two while they were coming back. He also announces a prize for the best story, as well as penalty for anyone who give up. The pilgrims decided to agree. Symbols Canterbury is the symbol of the celestial city, the end of life. The journey of the pilgrims becomes the allegory of the course of human life. However, the work remained unfinished and so Canterbury is not reached by the pilgrims. Characters Chaucer wanted to give a portrait of English society, but he did not portray aristocracy or peasants. This is because no nobleman would have travelled with commoners, but instead with their own entourage. On the other hand, lower-class people could not afford such an expensive trip. The names given to the pilgrims refer to their professions, and suggest a society in which work affected the personality. Style Chaucer used all the main genres of medieval narrative. The Canterbury Tales boasts stylistic variety, but realism is the distinctive feature of the work. It is a long narrative poem written in verses, with rhyming couplets made up an iambic pentameter (=10 syllable lines alternating unstressed and stressed syllables) About the author ➡ Geoffrey Chaucer (ca 1343-1400) Geoffrey Chaucer was born in London, probably in 1343.In 1370 he was sent to Italy when he probably met Petrarch and became familiar with the work of Boccaccio and Dante. Chaucer is considered the Father of English Poetry because: • he was the first poet to write all his work in the dialect of his native London. • He greatly contributed to the prestige of English as a literary means • He introduced continental accentual syllabic meter as an alternative to the alliterative Anglo -Saxon meter.